| 1100–1532 | South America [administration] | The Inca empire dominates the Andes region of South America. Its population numbers as many as 12 million. Incan society is based on a strict hierarchy, with an emperor who rules with absolute power. Their religion is based on sun-worship, and they are skilled builders who create a system of roads and irrigation. |
| 15 June 1520 - 3 January 1521 | Papal States, Italy, Holy Roman Empire, Saxony, Germany [political events] | Pope Leo X excommunicates the German church reformer Martin Luther for heresy and dissent by the bulls Exsurge Domine/Rise Up, O Lord (which Luther burns at Wittenberg on 10 December) and Decet. |
| 1521 | Germany [painting] | The German artist Lucas Cranach paints Luther as Junker Jög, the first of his long series of portraits of the German religious reformer Martin Luther. |
| 1521 | Italy [painting] | Italian artist Pontormo (Jacopo Carucci) paints frescoes depicting mythological scenes in the Medici Villa in Poggio a Caiano in Italy. He also paints Deposition from the Cross. |
| 1521 | Italy [philosophy] | Italian political writer Niccolò Machiavelli publishes Dell'arte della guerra/On the Art of War. It is translated into English in 1560 as Seven Books on the Art of War. |
| 1521 | England [poetry] | The English poet John Skelton publishes the poem The Tunning of Elynour Rummyng. |
| January 1521 | Sweden, Denmark-Norway [political events] | The county of Dalarnia, to which the Sture family of former Swedish rulers is native, revolts against the tyrannical regime of King Christian II and his pro-Danish governor Archbishop Gustav Trolle; the largely peasant army, led by Gustavus Vasa, captures the towns of Västerås and Uppsala by the end of winter. |
| 26 March 1521 | Holy Roman Empire, Germany [political events] | Emperor Charles V convenes the Diet (legislative assembly) of Worms. Both Pope Leo X and the emperor want to condemn the views of the German church reformer Martin Luther, but they allow him to present his case. Refusing to retract his antipapal views, Luther makes his famous remark: ‘Here I stand. I can do no other’ on 18 April. On 25 May Luther is condemned as the ‘Devil incarnate’ and his books are ordered to be destroyed. |
| 27 April 1521 | Spain, Philippines [political events] | Ferdinand Magellan, the Portuguese navigator and explorer, dies in Mactan, Philippines, while leading a Spanish expedition across the Pacific Ocean (c. 41). He is killed in a skirmish on the island of Mactan while attempting to convert the Philippines to the allegiance of Spain and Christianity. His remaining two ships continue south to the Moluccas in the Malay Archipelago. |
| 26 May 1521 | Holy Roman Empire [political events] | The Edict of Worms outlaws the German church reformer Martin Luther by imposing on him the Ban of the (Holy Roman) Empire. He takes refuge with Frederick III, Elector of Saxony, in his castle of Wartburg. |
| 13 August 1521 | Spain, Mexico, Aztec Empire [wars] | A Spanish force under the conquistador Hernán Cortés, aided by Tlaxcalan allies, completes its capture of the smouldering ruin of the Aztec capital Tenochtitlán, in the Valley of Mexico, after an eight-week siege and bitter street fighting. The surrender of the Aztec ruler Cuauhtemoc hands Mexico to Spain. |
| 1 December 1521 | Rome [births and deaths] | Pope Leo X (Giovanni de' Medici), pope 1513–21, noted for his political skill and personal extravagance, dies in Rome, Italy (56). |
