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1531| 1100–1532 | South America [administration] | The Inca empire dominates the Andes region of South America. Its population numbers as many as 12 million. Incan society is based on a strict hierarchy, with an emperor who rules with absolute power. Their religion is based on sun-worship, and they are skilled builders who create a system of roads and irrigation. | | 1531 | Italy [art] | The Italian humanist Andrea Alciati publishes Emblemata. A collection of images with explanations of their symbolism, the book has a profound effect on iconography of 16th- and 17th-century art. | | 1531 | Spanish Netherlands [banking and finance] | The Beurs opens in Antwerp in the Netherlands; it becomes the model for all subsequent stock exchanges and symbolizes the new commercial significance of the city as the chief trading centre of the Habsburg realms. | | 1531 | Greece [medicine] | A rediscovered text by the classical Greek physician Galen, On Anatomical Procedures, is published for the first time. | | 26 January 1531 | Portugal [natural disasters] | An earthquake destroys the Portuguese capital of Lisbon, killing 50,000 people. The superstitious associate the disaster with the appearance of a ‘Great Comet’ in the sky. | | 27 February 1531 | Germany, Holy Roman Empire [political events] | Protestant polities of Germany form the Schmalkaldic League, with a common army and treasury, to defend themselves against the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and his Catholic allies. The members are John, Elector of Saxony, Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, Prince Wolfgang of Anhalt, the two counts Mansfeld, four dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg, and the cities of Strassburg, Ulm, Constance, Reutlingen, Memmingen, Lindau, Biberach, Isny, Lübeck, Magdeburg, and Bremen. | | 11 October 1531 | Swiss Confederation [wars] | The Swiss Catholic Christian Union armies defeat those of the canton of Zürich, under Jörg Göldli at Kappel, killing the Protestant pastor and theologian Ulrich Zwingli in battle. | | 23 November 1531 | Swiss Confederation [political events] | The Peace of Kappel ends the war in the Swiss Confederation between the Catholic Christian Union and Protestant Civic League cantons; each canton and territory gains the right to worship as they choose, recognizing that the Confederation will be divided between Protestant and Catholic cantons. |
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