| 1606–1657 | Ottoman Empire, Habsburg Monarchy, Hungary, Transylvania [treaties] | The 1606 peace treaties between the Habsburg and Ottoman empires lead to half a century of peace and stability in Hungary; no major campaigns are fought between the two, though frontier skirmishes and raids are endemic, and Transylvania develops into a rich regional power. |
| 1607–1700 | North America, UK [food and drink] | Fruits introduced to the North American colonies from England include apples, which adapt well in New England, and peaches, which grow easily in Virginia and other warmer regions. Native vegetables like pumpkins, squash, and beans are favoured over European vegetables. |
| 1640–1700 | North America [literature and language] | Literacy rates in the colonies, particularly in New England, are high relative to those in the Old World. Shipton, New England has a 95% literacy rate; males in Virginia have a literacy rate between 54% and 60%. |
| 1644 | China, Ming Empire [Manchu conquest of China (1644–82)] | Following the crumbling of Ming authority in China, the Manchus take control of the city of Beijing and expel a rival claimant for power, Li Zucheng. They proclaim Shunzhi as the first emperor of the Qing dynasty, with his uncle Dorgun acting as regent. |
| 1644 | France [philosophy] | French philosopher René Descartes publishes Principia philosophiae/Principles of Philosophy in Latin (a French version follows in 1647). This work brings together his philosophy and his scientific theories. |
| 1644 | Rome [Catholicism] | The Italian churchman Giovanni Battista Pamphili is elected Pope Innocent X. He is pope until 1655. |
| January 1644 | Sweden, Denmark-Norway [wars] | Having launched their planned attack on Denmark in December 1643 by invading Holstein, Swedish forces cross the border into Jutland and establish control over the province by the end of January. |
| 31 March 1644 | Papal States, Venice, Parma, Italy, Tuscany [treaties] | The Peace of Ferrara is signed in Venice by Pope Urban VIII and the Duke of Parma and his allies, Venice, Modena, and Tuscany. The treaty ends the war of Castro, ongoing since 1642. |
| 2 July 1644 | UK [British Civil Wars (1642–51)] | A combined English parliamentarian army under Oliver Cromwell, the Earl of Manchester, and Thomas Fairfax decisively defeats the Royalists, led by Prince Rupert, nephew of King Charles I, at the Battle of Marston Moor near York. The Royalists suffer heavy losses and the defeat consolidates Parliament's control of the north of England. |
| 4 August 1644 | France, Holy Roman Empire [Thirty Years War (1618–48)] | A three-day battle takes place at Freiburg between French troops under the Duke of Enghien and the Bavarian-imperialist army under Franz von Mercy. Mercy is forced to retreat, leaving the French to occupy a substantial portion of the left bank of the River Rhine. |
| 2 September 1644 | UK [British Civil Wars (1642–51)] | The Earl of Essex's 6,000-strong infantry force surrenders to the Royalist army under King Charles I at Lostwithiel, Cornwall, England, during the English Civil War. Essex is forced to escape by sea. The victory, along with others in 1644, puts Charles in a good position to launch an attack on London, England. |
| 15 September 1644 | Papal States, Italy [political events] | Giovanni Battista Pamfili is elected Pope Innocent X in succession to Urban VIII. |
| 27 October 1644 | UK [British Civil Wars (1642–51)] | Parliamentarian forces under Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester, William Waller, and Oliver Cromwell fail to capture a small Royalist force under King Charles I at the second Battle of Newbury of the English Civil War, allowing it to escape to Oxford instead. The failure leads directly to the formation of the New Model Army in an attempt to raise standards and create better coordination between various parts of the parliamentarian army. |
| 4 December 1644 | Holy Roman Empire, Spain, France, United Netherlands, Sweden [diplomacy] | A peace conference formally opens in the two towns of Münster and Osnabrück, aimed at securing an agreement between the opposing sides in the Thirty Years' War. Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor, initiates and opens negotiations, however, full discussions do not get under way until mid-1645. The negotiations ultimately lead to the Peace of Westphalia of 1648. |
| 8 December 1644 | Sweden [political events] | Queen Christina, at the age of 18, becomes the active ruler of Sweden. She pursues a policy aimed at peace in Europe rather than territorial expansion and national aggrandisement. |
