African history

Africa is probably the continent in which humans originated (see human species, origins of).

Classical connections One of Africa's earliest external contacts was with the Romans, who gave the name Africa to their African provinces with the city of Carthage. Classical writers called this continent Libya, and both Herodotus and Ptolemy wrote about it. Herodotus records that King Necho of Egypt (reigned 610-594 BC) sailed down the Red Sea, and in the third year of his voyage returned to Egypt after passing the Pillars of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar).

Egypt The early recorded history of northeastern Africa was shaped largely by the influence of Egypt, a relationship founded on trade, with Egyptians penetrating the continent as far as the Congo Basin in search of raw materials. Egyptian influence became more pronounced as hunting and gathering peoples were introduced to methods of food cultivation, especially in the area round the Nile cataracts, known as Kush.

Kush The kingdom of Kush, with its capital at Meroë, flourished as an independent civilization for two or three centuries after Egypt's decline. But by the middle of the 1st century AD this Meroitic civilization was itself in decline and overshadowed already by a rival trading empire based on Aksum in the Ethiopian highlands. The Aksum Empire overthrew Kush in the 4th century, burning Meroë and driving the ruling elites of Kush to the west, to Kordofan and Darfur, where they were able to recreate the elements of their civilization, and eventually extended their influence as far as Lake Chad.

The Sudanic civilization A new form of civilization began to spread from the Meroitic and Aksum civilizations in the upper Nile valley, reaching eventually as far as the Senegal River in the west and Zimbabwe to the south. This was the Sudanic civilization, an organizational and political superstructure based on the economies of agricultural societies. The most likely explanation for its origins and growth is that peasant communities were integrated within it, becoming states themselves by conquering the states known to belong to the Sudanic civilization; the most important were those of Ghana in West Africa (which maintained trade links across the Sahara), the kingdom of Kanem lying northeast of Lake Chad, and the large state occupying the hinterland of Mozambique (which traded with Oman and the Far East).

The arrival of Islam In the 7th century there began an influx of peoples from Arabia to Africa, and many Africans became converts to Islam. The writings of the Arab geographers of the period - Edrisi, Ibn Battuta, and John Leo (Leo Africanus) - show a more extensive knowledge of Africa than the Greeks and Romans had. It is ironical that the greatest achievements of Islam followed the break-up of the Arab empire after the 9th century, when schisms within the Islamic world saw the Fatimid Empire give way to the Almoravid Empire and later the Almohad Empire. The Almoravids had begun to move against ancient Ghana about 1062, eventually creating the even greater Mali Empire under Sundiata, who reigned 1230-55.

The Songhai Empire Adherence to Islam allowed the states of West Africa to establish a better relationship with the governments and merchants of North Africa, thereby increasing their trade, prosperity, and strength. Control of trade in the Sudan was the key to the success of these empires, and once this control passed to the Songhai Empire in the 15th century, it replaced Mali as the dominant state. The imperial organization of Mali and Songhai enabled them to control large areas; their administrative system was based on Islam as a means of securing an allegiance that would be stronger than kinship, as well as establishing Muslim schools to provide educated and literate administrators.

East Africa The beginning of the Islamic era did not have such a dramatic effect in East Africa, and from the 4th to the 10th centuries by far the most significant development was the movement of the Bantu people into the coastal belt. This population drift was made possible by the introduction of Southeast Asian food plants (mainly banana and coconut), and in its turn began the trade in black slaves across the Indian Ocean.

The development of commerce Commerce development across the Indian Ocean was accompanied by Arab settlement in East Africa, beginning in the 8th century and reaching its high point from the 13th to 15th centuries, before the arrival of the Portuguese. East Africa became a significant area for Arab trade across the Indian Ocean and important, urbanized, Islamic communities grew up along the East African coast. One of the most important of these was Kilwa, which was founded on the gold trade, but declined following the diversion of the gold trade into Portuguese hands in the 15th century.

With the beginning of the colonial period, the history of the continent is covered under individual countries. The first Europeans to arrive in Africa in search of wealth were the Portuguese in the 15th century. During the 17th century the French began to compete for trade and colonies. They were joined in the 18th century by the Dutch, the Danes, and the British, and in the 19th century by the Germans and Belgians. For further history, see individual country entries, also slavery and African nationalism.