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Bolivia

Landlocked country in central Andes mountains in South America, bounded north and east by Brazil, southeast by Paraguay, south by Argentina, and west by Chile and Peru.

Government

Achieving independence in 1825 after nearly 300 years of Spanish rule, Bolivia adopted its first constitution in 1826, and since then a number of variations have been produced. The present one provides for a congress consisting of a 27-member senate and a 130-member chamber of deputies, both elected for four years by universal suffrage. The president, directly elected for a four-year term, is head of both state and government and chooses the cabinet. If no candidate obtains a clear majority in the presidential election, the president is chosen by congress.

For administrative purposes, the country is divided into nine departments, each governed by a prefect appointed by the president.

History

Once part of the Inca civilization, Bolivia was conquered by Spain in 1538 and remained under Spanish rule until liberated by Simón Bolívar in 1825 (after whom the country took its name). Throughout most of the 19th century Bolivia was governed by a series of caudillos (military or political leaders). The first of these, Andrés Santa Cruz, seized power in 1829 and created a Peru-Bolivia confederation in 1836. The confederation lasted only three years: it was put down by Chilean troops in 1839.

After the early 1870s, white and mixed-blood (cholo) landlords took virtually all the land remaining to the Indians.

Loss of territory

During the War of the Pacific in 1881, Bolivia lost its coastal province and outlet to the sea. Two decades later, further territory was lost to Brazil. Between 1932 and 1935 the Bolivian army waged a disastrous war (the Chaco War) with Paraguay over the border region between the two countries.

Army vs. reformers

In the 1951 election, Dr Víctor Paz Estenssoro, the National Revolutionary Movement (MNR) candidate exiled in Argentina since 1946, failed to win an absolute majority, and an army junta took over. A popular uprising, supported by MNR and a section of the army, demanded the return of Paz, who became president and began a programme of social reform. He lost the 1956 election but returned to power in 1960. In 1964 a coup, led by Vice-president Gen René Barrientos, overthrew Paz and installed a military junta. Two years later Barrientos won the presidency.

He was opposed by left-wing groups and in 1967 a guerrilla uprising led by Dr Ernesto ‘Che’ Guevara was put down with US help.

Frequent coups

In 1969 President Barrientos died in an air crash and was replaced by the vice-president. He was later replaced by Gen Alfredo Ovando, who was ousted by Gen Juan Torres, who in turn was ousted by Col Hugo Bánzer Suárez in 1971. Bánzer announced a return to constitutional government, but another attempted coup in 1974 prompted him to postpone elections and ban all trade union and political activity. Bánzer agreed to elections in 1978, but they were declared invalid after allegations of fraud, and, in that year, there were two more military coups.

In the 1979 elections Dr Siles and Dr Paz received virtually equal votes, and an interim administration was installed. An election in 1980 proved equally inconclusive and was followed by the 189th military coup in Bolivia's 154 years of independence. Gen Luis García became president but resigned the following year after allegations of drug trafficking. He was replaced by Gen Celso Torrelio, who promised to fight corruption and return the country to democracy within three years. In 1982 a mainly civilian cabinet was appointed, but rumours of an impending coup resulted in Torrelio's resignation. A military junta led by the hardline Gen Guido Vildoso was installed.

Economy deteriorates

With the economy deteriorating, the junta asked congress to elect a president, and Dr Siles Zuazo was chosen to head a coalition cabinet. Economic aid from Europe and the USA, cut off in 1980, was resumed, but the economy continued to deteriorate. The government's austerity measures proved unpopular, and in June the president was temporarily abducted by a group of right-wing army officers.

Siles resigned in 1985 and an election was held. No candidate won an absolute majority and Paz, aged 77, was chosen by congress.

Power-sharing

In the 1989 elections the MNR won marginally more votes in the chamber of deputies than the Nationalist Democratic Action Party (ADN), but did not obtain a clear majority. After an indecisive presidential contest, Jaime Paz Zamora of the Movement of the Revolutionary Left (MIR) was chosen as president by congress in a power-sharing arrangement with former military dictator Hugo Bánzer Suárez.

The 1993 presidential election was again inconclusive but, after Hugo Bánzer withdrew his candidacy, the presidency went to the MNR leader, Gonzalo Sanchez de Lozada. He pledged increased foreign investment and closer relations with the USA. In 1997, Bánzer was elected sole president.

Popular protests 2000

The government had lost support because of economic stagnation and widespread poverty. A dispute over coca production in Bolivia led to cities being paralyzed by 17 days of protesters' roadblocks, and to business leaders urging the government to declare a state of emergency on 4 October 2000. The roadblocks caused a rise in food prices. The protesters, mostly coca farmers, teachers, and peasant farmers, demanded the resignation of President Hugo Bánzer, whose term was due to last until 2002.

In 2001, Bánzer's 1970s government was implicated in a cross-border ‘dirty war’ with other right-wing dictators to eliminate opponents. In April, there were further popular protests and strikes, in demand for higher wages and the end of water privatisation and agricultural reforms.

Bánzer steps down

President Bánzer stepped down in August 2001 - a year before the end of his five-year term. He resigned because of ill health, and was replaced by Vice-President Jorge Quiroga, a conservative US-educated technocrat.

New socialist president

The presidential elections of December 2005 were won by the socialist leader Evo Morales, who was sworn in as Bolivia's first-ever indigenous president in January 2006.

Cochabamba Corocoro Gran Chaco Mamoré

Pacific War Sucre, Antonio José de Tiahuanaco Titicaca, Lake