African art

Art of black African origin, in particular the sculpture and carving of the sub-Saharan domain, from prehistory to the art of ancient civilizations and post-imperialist Africa. Covering a vast range of art forms and styles, it also incorporates two distinct categories: the historic courtly art of Ife and Benin (13th–16th-century Nigeria), noted for its naturalistic bronze and terracotta sculptures; and the more traditional African art forms, which are in the first instance functional, and are more conceptual and abstract in form, reflecting local religious beliefs and values.

Knowledge of African art history south of the Sahara is sketchy, partly because of the limited amount of archaeological work that has been carried out in such a huge area, and partly because humidity and termites quickly destroy perishable materials.

Prehistoric art Rock paintings are found in various regions, notably in the western Sahara, Zimbabwe, South Africa, and, from the end of the period, East Africa. Some of the earliest pictures are of elephants. The images tend to be linear and heavily stylized and sometimes show a geometric style. Terracotta figures depicting people and animals, from the Nok culture (named after a site at the village of Nok in the central plateau of Nigeria), dating from several centuries BC, display a sophisticated blend of individuality and stylization.

Religion Despite differences in detail, all tribal artists were inspired by similar beliefs. According to African animism, every existing thing has a vital force or energy, and in order to maintain this energy within the tribe and the individual, religious rituals must be performed. Consequently, traditional African art forms embody the beliefs and values of the community, often in the form of masks or ancestor figures, which are used during religious ceremonies. Masks are used to communicate with the spirit world, while other charms and figurines are used as forms of spiritual protection and ancestor worship.

As African art is made for a functional purpose rather than for decoration, it is not necessary for it to be realistic, beautiful, or to follow conventional art rules such as proportion. The focus of the art is primarily spiritual, so that the object can be used to generate or foster ‘energy’, and the artist, therefore, works to embody a particular spiritual concept related to the subject being carved or decorated. In the case of statue carving, the head is often larger than is naturally proportional because of the belief that the head is central to the life force, and is therefore more important than the body.

Zimbabwe Ruins of ancient stone buildings from before AD 300 suggest a time of outstanding urban culture in the country's history; sculptures found in the ruins show a high degree of artistic skill.

Benin and Ife Particularly advanced sculptures from the 13th to 16th centuries have been found at the coastal cities of Benin and Ife in western Nigeria. Rather than the abstract style of traditional tribal art, Benin and Ife sculptures tend to be more naturalistic; works include bronze and terracotta heads, figures, and animals (examples in the British Museum, London). As they are court artworks, the heads commemorate royalty and nobility. Refined techniques such as casting by the cire-perdue (lost-wax) method were used, and show great artistic confidence. Today the Yoruba of western Nigeria still acknowledge Ife as their sacred city. They are among the finest and most prolific of woodcarvers, producing vast quantities of figures, houseposts, and masks.

Around 100 mi/160 km southeast of Ife lies the city of Benin, whose people traditionally learned about bronze-casting from Ife. The art of Benin is more stylized, and includes high-relief bronze plaques with figurative scenes, and ivory carvings. Some of these appear to have been designed for the Portuguese trade.

Ashanti Metalworkers of the Ashanti people (in present-day Ghana) made weights in highly inventive forms with comically exaggerated figures. They are also famous for their gold jewellery, mostly produced by the cire-perdue method.

Masks In contrast to the court art of the great kingdoms of West Africa, the village art includes a vast range of masks, some representing beautiful women (though nearly always worn by men), others incorporating a number of fearsome animal elements such as crocodile jaws, antelope horns, and carved snakes. The mask, which women and children are often forbidden to see, cannot be considered by itself: generally it forms part of a special costume of cloth and fibres, and may have its own drummer and assistant, its own music and dance-steps.

In the Niger Bend, on the plateau and at the foot of the Hombori Mountains, live the Dogon, whose masks and especially figure sculptures are among the most sought after by collectors. The unusual conditions of the caves in the mountain cliffs have preserved costumes belonging to their predecessors, the Tellem, which have been dated to the 10th century AD. These are almost identical with the cloth being woven today. Some Dogon sculpture has itself been dated to the 15th century. Besides the Dogon, the people most famous for their masks include the Bambara, Senufo, Dan, and Baule.

Central Africa, from Gabon through the Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire) and the Congo Republic to the Great Lakes, is also rich in masks and court art. Compared with the masks of West Africa, those of Central Africa generally do not incorporate such a variety of animal features. They are nevertheless obviously intended to terrify. Many, such as the white-faced masks of the Ashira Punu, which represent the spirit of a beautiful dead maiden with slanting eyes, or the masks of the Kwele with their heart-shaped faces and almond eyes, are extremely beautiful. On the other hand, the ‘nail fetishes’ of the Kongo – large standing figures with a raised arm holding a threatening spear or knife and the body bristling with nails – were designed for ritual use, either to heal or harm, and can be quite awesome.

Woodcarving The royal treasuries of Cameroon contain a wealth of woodcarvings such as large stools, often with a life-size wooden figure standing behind as the king's servant or guard, huge fat-faced masks, large drums, and human figures bearing bowls.

Strangely, there is less sculpture in the heavily forested areas of the Republic of the Congo than in the more open grassy plains of the Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire). Here is the great Kuba kingdom whose magnificent commemorative figures of former kings, sitting cross-legged on a low throne, holding a ceremonial sword in its scabbard, and with a mortar-board crown on the head, are now all in European museums (including the British Museum) or private collections.

The Kuba are also renowned for their wooden beakers with wonderfully carved decoration, sometimes in the form of a human figure whose enlarged head hollowed out serves as the container. Masks are very common, including royal ones representing mythological ancestors.

The Luba, now divided by scholars into the Hemba and Shankadi, have produced some of the finest sculpture in Africa – male and female standing figures, remarkable for their dignity and repose, stools supported by dignified kneeling women with slender limbs, and small headrests supported by pairs of standing or squatting figures, sometimes with hair that falls down the back of the head in three waves.

To the west are found the Songhai, with large magical figures, square-jawed and powerful, with a horn of magical substances stuck in the top of the head. They also, along with the Luba, employ round-faced masks decorated with concentric circles. The Pende have attractive face masks representing dead people, but also excellent miniature masks made of ivory. Finally, the Jokwe, on the frontier of the Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire) and Angola, produce an enormous number of masks and woodcarvings, some of very great beauty.

Apart from the fine old masks and rare figurines of the Makonde of Mozambique, the art of East Africa is comparatively little known. Research over the years has revealed a wide range of styles stretching from southern Sudan, through parts of Ethiopia, to Kenya, and especially Tanzania.

Beadwork Woodcarving in southern Africa is not common, but here the Pondo, Swazi, Tembu, Xhosa, and Zulu are renowned above all for their beadwork, which they wear in abundance even today, though old beadwork of the turn of the century is less garish and is better designed.

A feature of Cameroon art is its use of trade beads, and many woodcarvings are completely covered with beadwork, especially in red and blue. Some of the masks, as well as pipes with huge bowls and long stems, are cast in brass.

General Over the centuries, much artistic effort has been invested in religious and ceremonial objects and masks, with wooden sculpture playing a large role. Many everyday items, such as bowls, stools, drums, and combs, are finely crafted and display a vitality of artistic invention and expression. Since much pre-19th-century African art has been either lost or ignored, it has occupied only a small place in Western art-history studies. In the early 20th century, however, West African art had a profound influence on the work of many European painters and sculptors, in particular Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, Constantin Brancusi, Amedeo Modigliani, and Jacob Epstein.