Australia

An expedition across the Australian desert in 1873, led by Peter Warburton. The gold rushes of the 1850s stimulated inland exploration by Europeans, including the crossing of the Blue Mountains by William Lawson and others.

Aborigines in the Australian outback. Aboriginal people have lived in Australia for more than 40,000 years. When Europeans began to colonize Australia in the late 18th century, there were around 300,000 Aborigines, of perhaps 500 different linguistic and cultural groups, on the continent. Very few now live in the remote outback, most having moved into the cities or large towns.

Testing for radiation, Australia. During the 1950s, the UK carried out a number of atom-bomb experiments in the Nullarbor Desert of southern Western Australia. Fallout was detected across the country while service personnel in the immediate area were exposed to high levels of radiation. Radiation levels at the test-sites are still very high.

This photograph of an Australian Aboriginal camp was taken in 1895, before the policy of ‘assimilation’ was implemented. This policy, which was carried out between 1910 and 1970, involved Aboriginal children being removed from their homes in the Northern Territory and either put in orphanages or placed in white families.

Country occupying all of the Earth's smallest continent, situated south of Indonesia, between the Pacific and Indian oceans.

Government

Australia is an independent sovereign nation within the Commonwealth, retaining the British monarch as head of state, represented by a governor general. The constitution came into effect on 1 January 1901. As in the British system, the executive, comprising the prime minister and cabinet, is drawn from the federal parliament and is answerable to it. The parliament consists of two chambers: an elected Senate of 76 (12 for each of the six states, two for the Australian Capital Territory, and two for the Northern Territory); and a House of Representatives of 147, elected by universal adult suffrage. Senators serve for six years, and members of the House for three years.

Voting is compulsory; the Senate is elected by proportional representation, but the House of Representatives is elected as single-member constituencies with preferential voting. Each state has its own constitution, governor (the monarch's representative), executive (drawn from the parliament), and legislative and judicial system. Each territory has its own legislative assembly. The last relics of UK legislative control over Australia were removed in 1986.

History
For the history of Australia prior to the creation of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, see Australia: history to 1901.

Federal versus state powers

On the foundation of the Commonwealth of Australia, the division of powers between the state and federal governments was made, broadly, on the principle that those powers that were concerned solely with internal affairs should be vested in the states (as the colonies now became). The restrictions thus imposed on federal action have at times proved irritating, and on occasions have prevented the government from pursuing policies it has considered necessary both for the economic development of the country and for the improvement of social conditions within the community.

Frequent attempts have been made to amend the constitution, but with little success. Nearly all proposed amendments have been designed to increase federal powers, but with the exception of 1946, when the Commonwealth was given control of social services, these proposals have been rejected by the electorate. The Commonwealth has desired full powers over trade, commerce, industrial matters, trusts, and monopolies, but though these have been denied it, judicial review and its financial supremacy have enabled it to exert an increasing influence over state policy.

Government before World War I

The factors that had induced the formation of a federation, and had helped shape the constitution, largely dictated the issues to which the Commonwealth parliament first turned its attention. Within a decade legislation had been passed to establish an Australian navy and military force, to impose a protective tariff, and to implement the ‘White Australia’ policy (aimed at barring Asian immigration), and the first steps towards a welfare state had been taken with the granting of old-age pensions.

The Labor government that came into power in 1910 was already beginning to chafe under the limits imposed by the constitution when the outbreak of World War I overshadowed domestic affairs.

Australia in World War I

At the outbreak of war, all parties pledged themselves to support the Allied cause. A division of troops was immediately placed at the disposal of the imperial government in Britain, and a small force was promptly sent to German New Guinea. At no time did Australia adopt conscription, though two attempts were made to introduce it. Both times a majority of the people voted against it, and the issue split the Labor Party. Despite this opposition to compulsory overseas service, out of the population of 5 million, 400,000 men enlisted. Total casualties were approximately 220,000, including 55,585 dead. The Victoria Cross was awarded to 63 Australians.

Australian troops formed part of Anzac (the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps), and took part in many of the crucial battles of the war, most notably in the Gallipoli campaign. They also fought in defence of the Suez Canal and on the Salonika front in the early years of the war, and later in Palestine, Flanders, and France. Other forces took German New Guinea, Nauru, and the Bismarck Archipelago. These former German possessions were subsequently subject to Australian administration under a League of Nations mandate. The Australian navy also served in the war, its most famous feat being the sinking of the German cruiser Emden off the Cocos Islands in 1914.

Governments and parties in the 1920s

At the termination of hostilities, Australia was represented at the Paris Peace Conference and became a member of the League of Nations, but external affairs quickly faded into the background. Australians were more concerned to get their forces home as quickly as possible and to get back to the problem of developing the continent and improving social conditions.

There was a change in emphasis, in outlook, and in actual policy in the period after World War I. Material questions were to dominate the 1920s. The Labor Party had been in the ascendancy before the war but after the split over conscription it lost control, not only in the Commonwealth but in all states except Queensland. By 1924 it had recaptured most of the state governments, but not until 1929 did it regain control in the Commonwealth parliament. William Hughes led a Nationalist government until 1923, and Stanley Bruce a Nationalist-Country Party coalition until 1929.

Industrial unrest

Throughout the period there was a series of industrial disputes, and government-sponsored arbitration seemed powerless to avert them. The situation was aggravated by the division of arbitration powers between the Commonwealth and the states - by 1919 all states had established some form of arbitration or wage regulation.

The Commonwealth government had tried to make arbitration work, but it failed to persuade the electorate to enlarge its industrial powers and only embittered industrial relations with the introduction of increased penalties for breach of arbitration rulings. The increasingly hard line against the trade unions taken by Bruce's Nationalist-Country Party coalition during the 1920s helped to bring about its defeat at the hands of the electorate in 1929.

Development and immigration in the 1920s

By 1929 the collapse of the economic plans of Bruce's defeated government was also evident. It had concentrated throughout the 1920s on an attempt to force the pace of economic development, and to this end had generously encouraged immigration and imported capital. Except for a few years before the war, there had been no large-scale immigration to Australia for a considerable time, and the growth of population depended largely on natural increase.

In cooperation with the British government (which provided the capital) and the states (which helped settle the immigrants), the Commonwealth sponsored ambitious immigration schemes, under which £34 million was to be made available for land settlement and associated public works. In fact the target came nowhere near being realized, for only £9 million of the loan money was spent and only 200,000 immigrants had arrived when signs of the coming depression brought the schemes to an end.

The great depression

Australia was one of the first countries to feel the effects of the great depression that followed the Wall Street crash of 1929. Bad seasons and a disastrous fall in the price of wheat had already brought to an end the period of optimistic expansion by the time of the 1929 election.

The new Labor government showed some hesitation in dealing with the situation. Tariffs were raised still higher, but the pursuit of the traditional objectives of economic retrenchment and deflation caused dissension in Labor ranks, for it was seen by some to involve greater hardships for workers than for other sections of the community. A compromise policy calling for conversion of loans and a limited amount of inflation was finally evolved. However, the Labor Party had been seriously weakened. It was defeated in the 1931 elections and remained in opposition for ten years.

Though economic recovery was comparatively rapid, economic problems continued to preoccupy the government throughout the 1930s. The government was acquiescent when Britain pursued a policy of appeasement in Europe, and though 1934 saw the beginning of rearmament, it was not until war became imminent that real efforts were made to provide any adequate defence measures.

Australia in World War II

On the outbreak of World War II the Australian prime minister Robert Menzies followed Britain's lead, and on 3 September 1939 Australia declared war on Germany. The country was in many ways unprepared, and it took some time to organize an effective war effort. From the beginning Australia cooperated in the Empire Air Training scheme, compulsory military training was introduced, and before the end of 1939 the Australian Imperial Force had sailed for the Middle East. In the first two years of the war Australian troops fought in Greece, Syria, and North Africa.

The domestic political situation in the early years of the war was unstable. The 1940 elections had resulted in the House of Representatives being evenly divided between Labor and non-Labor, with two independents holding the balance. Menzies remained prime minister and the Labor Party rejected his repeated proposals for an all-party government, though consenting to be members of an all-party advisory war council. In August 1941 Menzies resigned and after a brief period Labor assumed control. Labor had not questioned the participation in the war but merely the disposition of troops, and with the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 the cause of the dispute disappeared.

In the same month the new Labor prime minister John Curtin made his famous appeal to the USA for help - an appeal that was interpreted by some as the severing of the link with Britain. Britain was too occupied in the European theatre of war to provide effective assistance in the defence of Australia, which, as the Japanese pushed south, had only one armoured division and seven skeleton divisions of semi-equipped untrained militia to defend it. February 1942 saw the surrender of 15,000 Australian troops to the Japanese at the fall of Singapore, the bombing of Darwin on the Australian mainland, and the recall by Curtin of two of the three Australian divisions in the Middle East. The British prime minister Winston Churchill had wanted these diverted to defend Burma, but Curtin insisted that they return to Australia.

The rest of the war saw close cooperation between US and Australian forces. Australia became the base for the Allied campaign in the Pacific, and under the supreme command of Gen Douglas MacArthur the Allied forces halted the Japanese drive in 1942-43, and in mid-1943 began the recapture of the islands and the slow reconquest of the New Guinea coastline. In 1943 the 9th Division, which had remained in the Middle East and had assisted in checking the German advance into Egypt, had been recalled to join the fighting in New Guinea and the nearby islands. The last campaign in which Australian troops fought was the invasion of Borneo in July 1945.

At home, the impact of the war on the life of the community had been considerable even before the Japanese attack prompted much more extensive government controls. At first the government showed some reluctance to interfere with traditional economic freedoms, but by 1942 it had rationed a wide range of articles, pegged wages, controlled prices, and undertaken the direction of labour. Manpower had become a serious problem as the Australian manufacturing industry expanded under the pressure of the increased demands made upon it, once Australia became the base for US and Australian forces and a source of supplies. The result was a significant change in the structure of the economy, with the establishment of new industries and the expansion of existing ones.

Post-war policy

The maintenance of full employment was for many years a basic consideration in post-war policy. Even before hostilities ended the government drew up plans for projects that would be undertaken if unemployment threatened. In fact this did not happen, and the immediate post-war years were a period of rapid expansion, rising wages, and over-full employment.

The two objectives that have so often shaped Australian policies, the improvement of social conditions and the economic development of the continent, again dominated policy in the post-war period. The welfare state had actually been extended during the war, with family allowances being paid from 1941, and in 1945 a comprehensive scheme of unemployment and sickness benefits was introduced.

Further immigration

The war had emphasized Australia's relative emptiness, and the labour shortage continued after the war. This encouraged the development of a government-sponsored immigration scheme, starting in 1948. It was initially decided that an intake of 70,000 a year, together with natural increase, would result in a 2% population increase annually, this being considered the maximum increase possible without economic strain (although later this maximum was revised).

Old immigration policies were abandoned: no longer were immigrants settled on the land, and no longer was immigration only encouraged from Britain, as it was realized that the large number of displaced persons in Europe offered a ready source of immigrant labour. Numerically, the programme was very successful. In the first three decades following the war over 2 million new immigrants settled in Australia, including about one-third from Britain, which included children who were shipped from UK orphanages from the end of World War II until the late 1960s.

The Menzies era

It had been expected that large-scale immigration would relieve the labour shortage, but by creating new demands, notably in housing, schools, and hospitals, it aggravated the situation and was one of the contributing factors to post-war inflation, which reached a crisis point in 1951. High wool prices, heavy private investment, home building, and huge public-works programmes were contributory causes.

In 1952 the Menzies government (elected in 1949 as a Liberal-Country Party coalition, and re-elected in 1954, 1955, 1958, 1961, and 1963) decided that it had become necessary to reimpose certain controls, notably import restrictions, in order to halt inflation. These measures temporarily slowed the pace of expansion and intake of immigrants, but were reasonably successful in restoring economic stability. A prolonged period of economic prosperity followed, and active federal encouragement of immigration was revived. Australia's post-war economic expansion survived inflationary pressures and periodic waves of acute industrial unrest, in which control of the largest unions by the extreme left played a leading part.

Politically, the period was notable as one of great crisis for the Labor Party, continuously out of office from 1949 to 1972, and from 1954 deeply divided against itself. Australian political life as a whole suffered from its consequences.

Foreign affairs

Australia became much more conscious of its relationship with non-Commonwealth countries after World War II. The danger of Japanese invasion during the war had emphasized the need to make adequate defence arrangements, and the search for powerful allies resulted in attempts to achieve closer association with the USA. In the Cold War period Australia joined two regional defence alliances, becoming a member of Anzus (with New Zealand and the USA) in 1951, and of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) in 1954.

The need to establish friendly relations with Asian countries became increasingly important, particularly following the emergence of an expansionist Indonesia, which claimed some of Australia's trusteeship territories. To this end Australian diplomatic representation in many Asian countries was increased, and Australia made aid contributions under the Colombo Plan. In 1964, during the Indonesian threat to Malaysia, the Australian government introduced selective conscription.

In the early 1960s there was uncertainty in Australia regarding its future political and economic relations with Britain should the latter gain entry to the European Economic Community (EEC). A new trade agreement between the two countries in 1957 had safeguarded the preferences laid down by the Ottawa agreements of 1932, and many Australians considered that British membership of the EEC would imperil Australia's economy and entail the dissolution of the British Commonwealth. By this time Australia was, however, far less dependent upon British imports than it had been before 1939. Nevertheless when Britain did join the European Community (EC) in 1973, it was felt by many Australians that Britain had turned its back, and a new strain of nationalism began to emerge.

A succession of Liberal prime ministers

In 1966 Sir Robert Menzies retired and was succeeded by Harold Holt, who, a year later, was presumed drowned in a swimming accident. John Gorton became prime minister in 1968 but lost a vote of confidence in the House of Representatives. Holt had increased the number of Australian troops committed to the Vietnam War, and under Gorton the country became increasingly split over the issue. Gorton was succeeded by a Liberal-Country Party coalition under William McMahon in 1971. In December 1972 McMahon was defeated in the general election by the Labor Party under Gough Whitlam - the first Labor victory since 1949.

Whitlam's Labor government

In April 1974 Whitlam dissolved both houses of parliament because of persistent deadlock, but a month later he was reelected, despite having a reduced majority in the House of Representatives. During 1974 the Australian economy became progressively more unstable (partly owing to the international economic situation), with an unfavourable balance of trade, growing unemployment, and trade-union unrest.

On 1 January 1975, Australia introduced new laws on immigration. These restricted the number of unskilled and semiskilled workers allowed into the country, in order to ease the unemployment situation. They also abolished preferential treatment of immigrants from Britain, except in cases of family reunion.

In mid-1975 the Whitlam government narrowly survived accusations of unorthodox international loan-raising activities. The affair led to the dismissal or resignation of several senior government ministers and damaged Labor's standing. Opposition to the government's monetary policy became stronger in October when the opposition-dominated Senate exercised its constitutional right in blocking budget bills concerning money supply.

Whitlam replaced by Fraser

An impasse developed and the government rejected the Senate's proposal for a general election in mid-1976. On 11 November 1975 the governor general, Sir John Kerr, took the unprecedented step of dismissing the government and installing a caretaker ministry under Malcolm Fraser, the Liberal leader, to govern until elections could be held. The wisdom of this action was questioned by many, and there were widespread demonstrations supporting Whitlam. Kerr himself resigned in 1977.

The Liberals won a majority in the December 1975 elections with Fraser forming a coalition (Liberal-National Country Party). Whitlam was succeeded as leader of the Labor Party by Bill Hayden. In the 1977 general election Fraser's coalition government was returned with a reduced majority, which was further reduced in the 1980 elections.

The Hawke era

In the 1983 general election the coalition was eventually defeated and the Australian Labor Party under Bob Hawke again took office. Hawke called together employers and unions to a National Economic Summit to agree to a wage and price policy and to deal with unemployment. In 1984 he called a general election 15 months early and was returned with a reduced majority. Hawke placed even greater emphasis than his predecessors on links with Southeast Asia, and imposed trading sanctions against South Africa as a means of influencing the dismantling of apartheid.

In the 1987 general election Labor marginally increased its majority in the House but did not have an overall majority in the Senate, where the balance was held by the Australian Democrats. The 1990 election was won by Labor, led by Hawke, with a reduced majority in the House of Representatives, for a record fourth term in office. The Australian Democrats maintained the balance of power in the Senate. In August 1991 Hawke announced that agreement had been reached on greater cohesion of the states' economies.

Keating as prime minister

In December 1991 Hawke's leadership of the Labor Party was successfully challenged by Paul Keating, who became the new party leader and prime minister. Hawke retired from politics in January 1992. Despite Keating's ‘kickstart’ plan - announced in February 1992 - to boost a stagnant economy, Australia's unemployment rate reached a record 11.1% in July. Keating's inability to tackle the effects of the recession was seen as the main reason for his waning popularity. An expansionary budget outlined in August was criticized by the opposition as an attempt to gain support for the Labor Party in preparation for the 1993 elections. In December 1992 the Citizenship Act was amended so as to remove the oath of allegiance to the British crown.

In March 1993 Keating's premiership was confirmed when the Labor Party won a surprising general election victory, entering an unprecedented fifth term of office. John Hewson resigned as Liberal Party leader in May 1994 and was succeeded by Alexander Downer, who in turn was replaced by John Howard in January 1995.

In general elections held in March 1996, Keating's Labor Party was defeated by John Howard's Liberal-National coalition, giving the country its first conservative government for 13 years. Their overwhelming victory was seen as likely to make a republican future for Australia more distant. Despite his opposition to Keating's aim of holding a referendum before the year 2000 on whether Australia should become a republic, Howard pledged to set up a convention in 1997 to examine reforms to Australia's 19th-century written constitution. The Australian Constitutional Convention sat in Canberra. Delegates voted 13 February 1998 to replace the Queen as head of state with a president chosen by a bipartisan parliamentary majority. The vote was 89 to 52 (with 11 abstentions).

The ruling Liberal-National government, led by John Howard, narrowly retained power after the October 1998 general election, with majority of only six seats. Labor improved its performance, while the extremist One Nation party, led by Pauline Hanson and which called for less immigration, secured 8% of the vote, but won no seats. The introduction of a new 10% goods-and-services tax (GST) from July 2000 was confirmed in June 1999 by government legislation.

Australians voted in a referendum in November 1999 to retain their constitutional links with Britain and keep the queen as head of state. 55% voted ‘no’ in a referendum that offered them a historic opportunity to shed their colonial past, and chose not to become a republic with their own head of state. They also rejected a separate proposal to insert a preamble to the constitution, recognizing Aborigines as the first Australians. Following the referendum results, Howard said that, as far as he was concerned, constitutional reform was no longer on the political agenda. But republican yearnings would not disappear overnight, and the constitutional debate would undoubtedly be revived at the next general election in 2001, if not before.

Prime Minister Howard, regarded by many Australians as the architect of the referendum defeat, faced a cabinet as divided as the rest of the country. Critics pointed out that Howard had tinkered with the referendum question itself. Voters were asked whether they wanted Australia to become a republic, with the Queen and Governor-General replaced by a president appointed by two-thirds of parliament. Thus, Australians were asked two questions, not one: whether they wanted a republic and whether they favoured a particular method of electing the president. But the second question did not mention that candidates would be nominated by the public before they were approved by parliament. The referendum failed largely because many republicans thought they would have no say in choosing the president.

Population in the 1990s

Australia's population reached 19 million in August 1999. Natural increase accounted for 53% of the rise from 18 million, and net overseas migration contributed 47%.

In 2000, the Olympic Games was held in Sydney. It was estimated that the event brought over A$3 billion in new business to the Australian economy.

At the end of August 2000, Australia's government decided not to cooperate further with United Nations (UN) committees, complaining that the UN was interfering in domestic politics. Australia was angered by UN criticism of its treatment of Aboriginal Australians and asylum-seekers.

Torrential floods

Torrential rains in much of eastern Australia during late November 2000 caused widespread flooding in rural areas. In western Queensland and New South Wales, rivers flooded farmland, destroyed crops, including more than a million tonnes of wheat, and isolated towns and homesteads.

Welfare changes for New Zealanders

In December 2000, the Australian government decided to stop the automatic right of New Zealand migrants to Australian government benefits such as the dole. Only New Zealanders who meet the requirements for permanent residency will receive benefits. The change is expected to save about A$1 billion over 10 years. About 30,000 New Zealanders migrate to Australia annually, and 400,000 New Zealanders already live in the country.

Between July and December 2000, over 1,000 illegal immigrants had arrived from Indonesia by boat, and in December, at least 160 drowned when storms sank the boats.

In February 2001, the ruling Liberal party lost in state elections in Queensland and Western Australia. The following month, it lost a by-election in Queensland, as Australia's economy suffered a sharp slowdown. In late June, Peter Hollingworth, the former Anglican archbishop of Brisbane, took over from William Deane as governor-general.

Oil and gas deal with East Timor

East Timor and Australia signed an agreement in July 2001 to divide royalties from future oil and gas fields in the Timor Sea, which divides the two countries. Because most of the fields are in East Timorese waters, East Timor will receive 90% of the royalties, Australia 10%. The Australian foreign minister, Alexander Downer, said that Australia wanted to provide East Timor with a long-term revenue flow to support its development. The agreement superseded the 1989 Timor Gap Treaty, which split revenues 50-50 between Australia and Indonesia, which at that time controlled East Timor.

Asylum crisis

In August, a Norwegian freighter carrying 433 asylum seekers rescued from a sinking Indonesian ferry was refused permission to land them in Australia. In an unprecedented move, Australian troops prevented the mainly Afghan refugees from landing and 40 soldiers boarded the freighter, the MV Tampa, threatening to sail it out of territorial waters. After an eight-day stand-off, the unwanted asylum-seekers transferred to the HMAS Manoora, which took them to Papua New Guinea from where they were flown to New Zealand and Nauru, where applications for refugee status would be processed. However, the Australian government received a humiliating setback on 11 September when the Federal Court ruled that it had acted illegally in refusing the refugees permission to apply for asylum in the country and that they must be allowed to land. The government responded by launching an appeal against the ruling. In October, nine Sri Lankans were jailed for up to five years in the state of Western Australia for smuggling refugees as part of continuing the crackdown on unauthorized arrivals to Australia ordered by Prime Minister Howard. The asylum issue was expected to be a dominant concern in the general election scheduled for November.

2001 elections

John Howard was returned to office with an increased majority for a third term as prime minister in elections held on 10 November. Howard's harsh asylum policies proved popular, and gained the Liberal party 70% of the vote. Taking responsibility for the electoral defeat of the Australian Labor Party, Kim Beazley resigned as leader and was replaced by Simon Crean. However, the new Liberal government came under attack in February 2002 for allegedly misleading voters about an incident involving asylum seekers during the 2001 election campaign. Prime Minister Howard refused to comment on the use of edited photographs to claim that a number of asylum seekers on a boat had thrown their children into the sea to force the Australian navy to intervene. The photographs and the story were used to garner support for the party's hard-line stance on political asylum during the campaign. Parliament began an enquiry into the allegations.

Bush fires

In December 2001 and January 2002, Australia's biggest bush fires for eight years destroyed more than 150 homes in New South Wales. Some fires reached the outskirts of Sydney. The fires did not cause any deaths or serious injuries to humans, but killed thousands of sheep and native animals, and forced the evacuation of more than 5,000 people. By 1 January, the fires had consumed 300,000 ha/741,000 acres of bush. Police detained 21 people on suspicion of arson.

Asylum controversy continues

Hundreds of asylum-seekers in the Woomera detention camp ended a 16-day hunger strike on 29 January 2002 after the government said it would speed up consideration of their applications. Many of the 370 hunger strikers had sewn their lips together, while other inmates had attempted or threatened suicide. However, the Australian government faced mounting international pressure over its asylum policy, and the United Nations commissioner for human rights, Mary Robinson, asked to send an envoy to inspect the Woomera camp to ensure that Australia was meeting its international obligations. Public protest at the conditions at Woomera continued, with protesters helping over 50 asylum seekers to escape in March by knocking down fences and giving bolt-cutters to the detainees.

The government came under further attack in February for allegedly misleading voters about an incident involving asylum seekers during the 2001 election campaign. Prime Minister Howard refused to comment on the use of edited photographs to claim that a number of asylum seekers on a boat had thrown their children into the sea to force the Australian navy to intervene. The photographs and the story were used to garner support for the party's hard-line stance on political asylum during the campaign. The Australian parliament began an enquiry into the allegations.

Climate changes
According to the Australian Bureau of Meteorology, 1998 was the hottest year in Australia since records began in 1910. In 1998, the mean temperature was 25.54 C. The increase was attributed partly to the onset of La Niña conditions (which caused ocean temperatures to rise around the country) and partly to global warming. The mean temperature of the continent rose by 0.8 C in the course of the 20th century.

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