Venezuela

As a result of oil revenues, Venezuela has become one of South America's richest countries. It has been able to expand into industrial development that, in turn, has paid for important modernization. Yet the country still has its peaceful side, as can be seen in this picture of pelicans at Puerto-la-Cruz.

Country in northern South America, on the Caribbean Sea, bounded east by Guyana, south by Brazil, and west by Colombia.

Government

Venezuela is a federal republic of 23 states, a federal district based on the capital, Caracas, and two federal dependencies. It has a multiparty democratic political system, with a presidential executive. The 1999 constitution provides for a president, who is head of state and head of government, and a single-chamber legislature. The president is elected by universal suffrage for a six-year term and is restricted to a single consecutive term. The president appoints and presides over a council of ministers. The legislature is the National Assembly (Asamblea Nacional), comprising 167 deputies. They serve five-year terms (with a limit of three terms), and 164 members are directly elected through a combination of party lists and single-member constituencies, while three seats are reserved for indigenous people. The legislature can override presidential objections to laws by a majority vote.

History

For early history, see South America. Columbus visited Venezuela in 1498, and there was a Spanish settlement from 1520. In 1811 independence was declared after an uprising led by Francisco de Miranda, a Venezuelan marshal. However, after a devastating earthquake in Caracas in 1812, the republic was overthrown. Sovereignty was achieved in the early 1820s, after a successful rebellion against Spain led by Simón Bolívar, ‘The Liberator’, who formed the republic of Greater Colombia (Gran Colombia), which covered present-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama. This broke up in 1830 when Gen José Antonio Páez led a rebellion to form an independent Republic of Venezuela.

Dictatorship

Páez became Venezuela's first president 1830–48 and established a pattern of dictatorial rule that became typical in Venezuela in the 19th century. In the first half of the 20th century, Venezuela continued to be dominated by caudillos (military strongmen), which kept the country in a state of constant turmoil, although there were also social reforms and economic growth.

The discovery of oil

Caudillismo (authoritarian rule) declined after the death of Juan Vicente Gómez in 1935. The country became transformed by oil wealth, following the discovery of huge oil deposits, totaling some 400 millionwasbarrels, during World War I, and there was economic growth. By the mid 1930s Venezuela had the highest per capita GDP in Latin America and there was large-scale immigration from Southern Europe. The military became less involved in politics from 1958 and there was a move to democratically elected governments.

Greater stability

Venezuela adopted a new constitution in 1961, and Rómulo Betancourt became the first president to have served a full term of office. He was succeeded by Dr Raúl Leoni in 1964 and by Dr Rafael Caldera Rodríguez in 1969. The latter did much to bring economic and political stability, although underground abductions and assassinations still occurred. In 1974 Carlos Andrés Pérez, of the Democratic Action Party, became president, and stability increased. In 1979 Dr Luis Herrera, leader of the Social Christian Party, was elected.

The end of the oil boom

The collapse of world oil prices in the 1980s hit Venezuela's economy badly, leading to a mounting foreign debt, rising poverty, political and social tensions, and the return of the military as an important factor in politics. The 1984 general election was fought against this backcloth and was bitterly fought by 20 parties and 13 presidential candidates. Dr Jaime Lusinchi was elected president and the Democratic Action Party won an absolute majority in congress. To deal with the economic crisis, President Lusinchi pursued an austerity programme which was unpopular. He tried also to conclude a social pact among the government, trade unions, and business. He reached an agreement with the government's creditor bankers for a rescheduling of Venezuela's large public debt, but in 1988 Venezuela suspended payment on its foreign debt.

Carlos Andrés Pérez became the new elected president in 1989 and instituted price increases and other austerity measures designed to satisfy $4.3 billion loan terms imposed by the International Monetary Fund. This provoked protest riots, in which more than 300 people were killed, and a general strike in May 1989. Elections held in December 1989 were boycotted by the main opposition groups.

In May 1991, Venezuela, along with other members of the Andean Common market countries, agreed to create a Latin American free-trade zone.

Attempted coups

Violent demonstrations continued against the austerity programme throughout 1990 and 1991. The increasing disorder persuaded a group of army officers to attempt a coup, in February 1992, but it was foiled by troops loyal to the president. In response to the mounting public unrest, Pérez promised constitutional reforms and a second attempted coup, in November 1992, was foiled.

In May 1993 the country's supreme court ruled that Pérez should face trial on corruption charges, and Pérez was forced to step down, and Ramon José Velasquez became interim president. In May 1994, Pérez was subsequently arrested and, in May 1996, he was found guilty on corruption charges and sentenced to imprisonment.

The December 1993 presidential elections were won by Dr Rafael Caldera, a former president. He announced economic stabilization measures in November 1994 to attempt to address the country's deteriorating finances. Constitutional civil rights were suspended between June 1994 and July 1995.

Natural disasters

In July 1997 Venezuela suffered its worst earthquake in decades. The earthquake registered 6.9 on the Richter scale, killed 59 people, and injured about 320. Flooding and mudslides swamped Venezuela's Caribbean coast in late December 1999, resulting in death tolls as high as 30,000, at least 150,000 homeless civilians from 23,000 destroyed homes, 70,000 evacuees, and 96,000 damaged homes.

The Chávez revolution

In December 1998 Hugo Chávez Frías, a populist former Lt-Col and leader of the left-wing Fifth Republic Movement (MVA), was elected president with 57% of the vote. A controversial figure, Chávez had orchestrated the failed 1992 coup against President Pérez. A fierce critic of US foreign policy, he promoted a ‘Bolivarian’ vision of democratic socialism, Latin American integration, and anti-imperialism.

He was inaugurated in February 1999 and in May 1999 persuaded the National Assembly to grant him emergency powers. In December 1999 he won 71% support in a referendum to approve a new constitution. Despite economic troubles and rising unemployment, he was re-elected in July 2000 for a six-year term as president, pledging to redistribute oil wealth from the rich to the poor and complete a programme of land transfer to the poor. His supporters did not win the two-thirds majority in National Assembly needed to legislate without opposition, but did well in contests for state governorships. In September 2000, Chávez helped persuade OPEC to restrict world oil production and force up prices. In November 2000, Chávez was given power to pass certain laws by decree, that is, without need for debate in the National Assembly.

Attempted coup against Chávez

Venezuela ground to a halt on 10 December 2001 in a one-day strike organized by private business and backed by labour forces. The action was called in protest at economic decrees issued by President Chávez that were perceived to be detrimental to the private sector. Chávez threatened to defend his regime with military force and emergency laws.

On 12 April 2002, the military briefly overthrew Chávez in a coup and installed a right-wing business leader, Pedro Carmona, who had been leading protests against Chávez, as interim president. However, this led to riots in Caracas and a pro-Chávez uprising and, after less than 48 hours, the pro-Chávez Presidential Guard retook the presidential palace without needing to fire and re-installed Chávez as president. Around 50 people were killed in the fighting over these days. Chávez later claimed that the USA's CIA had helped in plotting the failed coup.

In December 2002, Chávez faced a strike organized by the -owned petroleum company and aimed at forcing his removal. It badly damaged the economy. Chávez responded by firing the company's senior management.

Chávez survives recall election

In 2003, opponents of Chávez collected the signatures from 20% of voters needed under the constitution to force a ‘recall referendum’ on his continuing as president. This referendum was held in August 2004, but Chávez survived, with a 59% ‘no’ vote.

From 2005, with sharply rising world oil prices, Venezuela's economy grew rapidly, by nearly 10% a year. This provided the basis for Chávez to increase substantially spending on health and education, and to reduce poverty. Chávez also became increasingly active in foreign affairs, promoting himself as an ally of Cuba in its struggle against ‘US imperialism’ and as a critic of economic globalization.

Chávez was re-elected president in December 2006, winning 62% of the popular vote to 37% for Manuel Rosales, the candidate of the A New Era opposition coalition. For this new term, he pledged further constitutional reforms and the re-nationalization of previously privatized industries, including in the telecommunications, electricity, and oil sectors.

Venezuela (redirected from Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela)