boycott

Social and commercial isolation of South Africa by individuals, organizations, and national governments protesting against South Africa's apartheid system. The sanctions and embargoes, imposed from the 1970s to 1994, applied to military supplies, economics, culture, and sport, and were designed both to isolate South Africa and to make the lives of the white population less enjoyable and more difficult. Boycotting tactics involved people all over the world in the struggle against the oppression of black South Africans.

The boycotts resulted from the efforts of three groups: individuals leading campaigns in their own countries, using anti-apartheid groups as a vehicle for protest; governments acting individually or in concert through organizations such as the Commonwealth; and the United Nations (UN), in which the majority of the world's governments came together to make the boycotts a global affair.

Economic sanctions The economic boycott or embargo system was the most controversial of the international anti-apartheid measures. Many governments, including the UK, refused to prohibit companies from investing in or trading with South Africa. The size of the South African economy and the profits available were considered too great to lose. Such governments preferred to work with the South African government to persuade it to change its policies. In the mid-1980s disagreement over economic sanctions occurred in the Commonwealth between the UK, led by Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, and other heads of state, including Canadian prime minister Brian Mulroney and the Zambian president Kenneth Kaunda. Thatcher opposed strong sanctions against South Africa arguing that they would damage the black population more than the white, and that they would not achieve their goals. Other Commonwealth leaders insisted that South Africa's apartheid government should be forced to change. The issue caused many members of the Commonwealth to boycott the Edinburgh Commonwealth Games in 1986, and forced a special summit of seven of the Commonwealth's leading governments to be held in London in 1986. Although a total split in the organization was avoided – the two sides agreeing to take separate action against South Africa as they saw fit – the incident demonstrated the strength of feeling concerning the validity of economic sanctions against South Africa.

Cultural boycott The cultural boycott was aimed at the arts and music of South Africa. It was endorsed by a UN Cultural Boycott Resolution, which stated that no artist or musician from a member state should work with South Africa. Cultural sanctions proved less controversial than their economic counterparts, and were generally supported during the 1980s. White South Africans were effectively banned from touring the world with their art, and non-South Africans were banned from visiting South Africa to play concerts or to record music. Artists who broke the boycott were heavily criticized by those involved in the anti-apartheid struggle, although this had little effect on their careers. The US folk-rock singer Paul Simon recorded part of his Gracelands album with black South African musicians and singers while visiting South Africa in 1985. Although he was accused of breaking the cultural boycott, Simon argued that he was supporting black musicians in South Africa, and allowing them opportunities that they had been denied for decades; the Gracelands was ultimately a huge success, selling millions of copies worldwide. The British rock band Queen contravened the cultural boycott when touring South Africa in the mid-1980s, but heavy criticism from anti-apartheid campaigners had no effect on their long-term success.

Boycott of sport The sporting boycott has often been cited as the most powerful of the tactics taken to isolate South Africa. Sport in South Africa is traditionally a central and highly competitive part of the white community, and their rejection from the international arena was deeply felt. In 1964 South Africa was banned from taking part in the Olympics. Tours made by the Springboks (South Africa's national rugby team) and the South African cricket team were among the first public targets of the anti-apartheid movement. In 1969 the Springboks' tour of the UK was disrupted by campaigners invading the pitch before and during their games, and a Davis Cup tie between the UK and South Africa was disrupted when anti-apartheid campaigners invaded the tennis courts. In 1970, after pressure from the UK home secretary, James Callaghan, the MCC withdrew its invitation to the South African cricket team to visit England; the tour had been threatened with widespread protest and direct action. Rugby and cricket authorities around the world were soon forced to ban their teams and players from playing against South Africa. Attempts to break the sporting boycott were less successful than attempts to break other sanctions. Although rebel tours were attracted to South Africa by the promise of financial gain, players damaged their careers by taking part; on their return home they were banned from representing their nations, either by the International Cricket Council or International Rugby Board. In 1990 a rebel tour of South Africa, led by the English test player Mike Gatting, had to be abandoned in the face of overwhelming protests and opposition in South Africa. On their return to England the players faced bans from test cricket for a number of years. The protests of non-white South Africans and prohibitions placed on players by their governing bodies ensured the general success of the sporting boycott.

Impact of the boycotts The apartheid regime was eventually dismantled in the mid-1990s, and democracy based on one person, one vote – regardless of race – was introduced. However, although the boycotts had effectively highlighted the apartheid policies of the South African government, and reduced the ability of the white government to survive in the longer term, the extent of their contribution to the end of apartheid is uncertain. Boycotts of the economy, sport, and culture did not destroy apartheid alone; the regime collapsed through a number of factors, in which the boycotts played a significant part.