Egyptian medicine, ancient

Medicine of Egypt from around 3,000 BC to around 400 BC. One of the first settled societies, the Egyptians were known for their wealth, power, and advanced agricultural, engineering, and scientific skills. Their medical practices improved on prehistoric medicine to include formal medical training for doctors, the use of minor surgery, and the development of remedies from new plants and materials imported through their trading networks. The Egyptians believed that the gods caused most illnesses, and combined spiritual and rational medicine, seeing the two as complementary in effecting a cure.

Doctors As most illnesses required both a spiritual and rational treatment, the roles of priest and doctors were often combined. The training of doctors usually occurred in temples and was given by the priests. Some doctors were not priests and received their training through apprenticeship to a qualified doctor.

Gods and charms Plagues and epidemics were believed to be the work of Sekhmet, the Egyptian goddess of heat and fire, who had to be appeased in order to bring such disasters to an end. Many Egyptians carried amulets, or charms, to ward off the evil spirits that caused disease. Models of the scarab beetle, revered as a symbol of resurrection, were popular talismans. The Egyptian god of healing was Imhotep. Formerly a doctor of King Zoser (3rd millennium BC), he had been deified as the son of Ptah, god of the creative force, and his temples at Memphis and on the island of Philae in the Nile became centres of healing. Thoth, the god of wisdom and learning, was believed to give doctors the power to heal.

Without the support of these gods, Egyptians believed it would be impossible to keep fit and healthy. Although the Egyptians accepted a combination of spiritual and rational techniques in medical treatment, spiritual ideas and belief in their powers of healing remained the most dominant, often with positive results.

Anatomy The religious practice of mummification helped to advance the Egyptians' knowledge of anatomy. Priests removed the internal organs from a corpse and preserved the body using natron, a salt-based solution from the River Nile. The liver, lungs, intestines, and stomach were placed in four separate Canopic jars in the tomb to accompany the person to the afterlife. Organs such as the brain, removed through the nose during the embalming process, were viewed as unimportant and discarded. The removal of the organs for religious purposes enabled the priest-doctors to expand their understanding of the human body at the same time, but dissection of the removed organs was prohibited. Egyptian religious belief stressed the need for the human body to enter the afterlife as whole and undamaged as possible. Any dissection of the organs that were considered essential in the afterlife would have been desecration.

Book of Thoth Spiritual and rational remedies for all known medical problems were laid down in the Book of Thoth, a medical instruction manual written in hieroglyphics on rolls of papyrus. Patients had to be treated in exact accordance with the Book of Thoth, the use of medicinal drugs and ointments being supported by prayers and offerings to the gods. The creation of a written record of case histories, observations, and treatments enabled the sharing of knowledge among doctors. However, the control of religion over the Book of Thoth hampered the development of medicine. The ideas in the Book of Thoth were not perfect; the treatments often worked but also frequently failed. Doctors were unable to develop new techniques, as this was regarded as an insult to the gods, particularly Thoth. If a patient died after their doctor had deviated from the regimes listed in the Book of Thoth, the doctor was liable to the death penalty. Although no copies of the book survive, it is believed that the medical treatments and religious rituals detailed in the medical Papyrus Ebers (c. 16th century BC) were taken from the Book of Thoth.

Medical theory The Egyptians developed a rational theory of illness in the body based on their observations of the River Nile. They believed that the body was made up of channels running from the heart to the other organs and limbs. In the same way that crops could fail to grow if the River Nile became blocked by silt, the body would become ill if the channels were blocked and the blood unable to flow. It was reasoned that some illnesses could be cured by unblocking the channels, so patients would be given emetics to make them vomit the contents of their stomachs or purgatives (laxatives) to make them excrete the contents of their bowels. Bleeding from the veins was also used to reduce the amount of blood and so increase the flow in the channels. Although this was a practical theory as to the cause of disease, treatment was still accompanied by religious ritual.

Rational treatments Medicines were made out of one or a combination of plant or animal products. Opium was used, often as a sedative or relaxant in illness, as well as materials such as salt, dates, figs, and animal fat. Honey was the most common ingredient, used in one-third of all Egyptian medicines. Medicines could be applied externally to wounds or taken internally after being prescribed by a doctor. Egyptian medicine often worked on minor illnesses or injuries because the ingredients used, such as honey or willow bark, contain natural antiseptics that kill bacteria and so clean up infections and wounds. Although the Egyptians did not understand why a treatment worked, successful medications were used again.

The Egyptians carried out basic external surgery on problems such as boils and on eyes, using sharp bronze or copper tools. However, no internal surgery was carried out, as knowledge of the internal organs gained from mummification was insufficient to develop the understanding required for successful treatment.

Public health Religious beliefs led to a general improvement in cleanliness and public health among the Egyptians. Priests washed every day, and frequently shaved their entire body. This practice, though religious in purpose, had the added benefit of keeping dirt, lice, and disease off their skin. The religious practice of washing and shaving was also followed on a less regular basis throughout Egyptian society, making a positive contribution to public health. Mosquito nets were developed to avoid the irritation of mosquito bites, the connection between the mosquito and malaria being unknown, but the result was better health for those who used them. Toilets and baths were developed for the wealthy, both for the purposes of cleanliness and to reduce the smell of human waste products in the intense Egyptian heat. The results, however, were beneficial for public health.

Impact of Egyptian medicine Evidence from Egyptian papyri and tomb paintings indicate that the Egyptians made great advances in medical knowledge over the legacy of the prehistoric world. They left the Greeks and others with a strong body of knowledge on which to build.