Fahd (1923–2005)

King of Saudi Arabia 1982–2005. He encouraged the investment of the country's enormous oil wealth in infrastructure and new activities – such as petrochemical industries – in order to diversify the economy, and also built up the country's military forces. When Iraq invaded neighbouring Kuwait in August 1990, King Fahd joined with the USA and other international forces in ‘Operation Desert Storm’ in the course of the 1990–91 Gulf War, in which Saudi Arabia was used as the base from which Kuwait was liberated in February 1991.

Falling oil prices, since the 1980s, led to a gradual reduction in the country's financial reserves, and to some retrenchment and, in the 1990s, gradual privatization. From the early 1990s King Fahd's absolutist regime faced twin pressures from liberals, campaigning for democratic elections, and from fundamentalist Islamic groups, which opposed the monarchy and sought the full imposition of Islamic sharia law. In May 1993 a group of Islamic activists, led by Muhammad al-Masari, formed a Committee for the Defence of Legitimate Rights to monitor the regime's adherence to Islamic principles. In response to pro-democracy pressures, in August 1993 the king established an advisory Shura Council, comprising 60 members of the national elite, drawn from outside the royal family, and also established a system of regional government. In November 1995 King Fahd suffered a stroke, and in January 1996 he ceded power to Crown Prince Abdullah, his legal successor.

Born at Ta'if, the 11th son of King Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud, the founder of the Saudi dynasty, Fahd was the eldest of seven sons borne by Ibn Saud's favourite wife, Hassa bint Ahmad al-Sudairi. He was educated at the royal court and at overseas universities. He served under King Saud as education minister, from 1953, and interior minister, from 1962, and, under King Faisal, who was his full brother, he became second deputy prime minister from 1967. Fahd's influence increased further when Khalid, his half-brother, became king in 1975. He became Crown Prince and first deputy prime minister, with effective charge of much of the day-to-day government. He became an influential negotiator of oil prices and promoter of peace in the Middle East, convening a summit conference at Fès in August 1981. On Khalid's death, in June 1982, Fahd became king and also head of government. He appointed his half-brother, Abdullah ibn Abdul Aziz al-Saud, who was commander of the National Guard, as Crown Prince and first deputy prime minister, and his full brother, Sultan ibn Abdul Aziz al-Saud, the defence minister, as second deputy prime minister.

The Gulf War cost the Saudis $50 billion, and at its conclusion King Fahd pressed for reparations from Iraq, which he had formerly provided with up to $20 billion in financial assistance during the 1980–88 Iran–Iraq war .