Frederick II (1194–1250)

Holy Roman Emperor from 1212, called ‘the Wonder of the World’. He was the son of Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI. He led a crusade in 1228–29 that recovered Jerusalem by treaty without fighting. Frederick quarrelled with the pope, who excommunicated him three times, and a feud began that lasted with intervals until the end of his reign. Frederick, who was a religious sceptic, is often considered the most cultured person of his age. His later years were marred by the rebellions of his chief minister and his son.

Frederick fought for his inheritance, taking the imperial crown from Otto IV in 1212 but not being formally crowned as emperor until 1220, after an early life as king of Sicily.