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Indian art

Arts of the Indian subcontinent (present-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh). Indian art dates back to the ancient Indus Valley civilization, about 3000-1500 BC, centred on the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo Daro. Only resilient artefacts have survived from this era because of the Indian climate, but small soapstone seals, pottery, and terracotta figures reflect the influence of Mesopotamian art. Beginning about 1800 BC, the Aryan invasions gave rise to the Hindu religion and arts celebrating its gods, heroes, and scenes from the two great epics, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyana. From the 6th century BC, Buddhist art developed, following the life and enlightenment of the Buddha Sakyamuni. A third strand was added in the 16th-17th centuries when the Mogul Empire introduced Islamic art to the subcontinent.

Buddhist art

Early Buddhist art developed in relation to the architecture of the stupa (temple shrines to the Buddha and his disciples), typically using symbols to represent the Buddha. The first appearance of the Buddha in human form was in the sculptures of the Mathura tradition (2nd century BC) and those of Gandhara (2nd-6th centuries AD) - possibly the greatest school of Buddhist sculpture. The Gandhara sculptures show Greek influence and, along with the Buddhist religion, were exported to China, Korea, and Japan. The deep relief of the Mathura work was followed by the gentler sculptures of Gupta (about 5th century AD). The Ajanta caves near Mumbai (formerly Bombay), first begun about 200 BC, contain the finest example of Gupta art - mural paintings from the 5th-7th centuries which, though religious in intent, reflect a sophisticated, courtly society.

Hindu art

From the 4th century AD, influenced by Buddhist art, Hindu artists created huge temple complexes; for example, at Orissa, Konarak, and Khajurāho. Much Hindu art was influenced by the Puranas, sacred writings concerning ancient history and legend produced from the 4th century AD. In the major shrines, great halls are decorated with paintings and sculptures representing scenes from the Puranas and the chief Hindu gods. Icons of deities include Shiva (the creator), Vishnu (the preserver), and Mahadevi (the consort of Shiva), whose manifestations include Kali, goddess of death and destruction, and the gentle Parvati. Hindu artists also built cave sanctuaries, the most famous being at Elephanta, near Mumbai, with a monumental depiction of the three forces of creation, preservation, and destruction, portrayed as Shiva with three heads. It was one of the first pieces of Hindu art to receive high acclaim in the West. The caves at Ellora feature an ensemble of religious art (Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain) dating from the 6th and 7th centuries. At Khajurāho, nearly a thousand celestial dancing girls, the Asparas, adorn the front of the temple; the sculpted figures display attributes of female beauty fashionable at that time, with elaborate hairstyles, minimal clothing, and voluptuous bodies. Later Hindu art includes the jewel-like depictions from the lives of Krishna and Rama in palm-leaf manuscripts, known as Rajput paintings.

Mogul art

From the 11th century, Muslim invaders destroyed Buddhist and Hindu temple art and introduced the mosque and, with it, Islamic art styles. By the 16th century, the Moguls had established an extensive empire. Persian painters were imported and Hindu artists trained in their workshops, a fusion that formed part of the liberal emperor Akbar's cultural plan and resulted in the exquisite Mogul miniatures of the courts of Jahangir and Shah Jahan. The subjects of miniature painting ranged from portraiture and histories to birds, animals, and flowers.

Akbar-nama American Indian art craft D'Harnoncourt, Count René Houser, Allen C

Munsterberg, Hugo New York (state) Santa Fe South East Asian art