Japan: history 1869–1912

For the history of Japan prior to 1869, see Japan: prehistoric and ancient history to AD 400, Japan: early feudal history 400–1192, and Japan: shogunate and restoration history 1192–1869.

The period 1869 to 1912 is also known as the Meiji era. Following the restoration of imperial power under Emperor Mitsuhito Meiji in 1869, Japan entered a rapid period of Westernization, modernization, and industrialization. By the early years of the 20th century, Japan had become a power capable of defeating Russia.

After centuries of isolation, Japan, under Western pressure, had opened itself to outside trade and influence in the mid-19th century. This process had been partly achieved through political conflict and armed revolt, with the shoguns being abolished and executive power being given to the emperor in the ‘Meiji restoration’ of 1869. Real authority was now actually held by a small group of senior politicians, called genkun (‘veteran statesmen’). Important among this group were Prince Hirobumi Itō, Aritomo Yamagata, Masayoshi Matsukata, and Tarō Katsura.

Modernization From the restoration of the emperor, Japan began to make its mark internationally, and undertook sweeping internal reforms. The rate of change from an isolated medieval state to a highly industrialized world power was extremely fast. Local government in Japan was modernized along the lines of European models. In 1871 an imperial decree abolished the old feudal fiefs (han) and replaced them with provincial organizations known as prefectures. Many of these retained the han boundaries. The samurai system had been abolished in 1869, and the samurai pensioned off by the government. However, in 1876 the government withdrew payment of their pensions and forbade the wearing of swords. From this point on samurai were only distinguished by the honorary title of shizoku (gentry families).

Other key reforms included the introduction of uniform coinage and weights and measures, a postal system, telegraph communications system, railways, mass education, conscription, and the adoption of the Western calendar. In 1889 Prince Itō framed the first constitution (on the imperial German model) for Japan.

Other political leaders who undertook the work of modernization included Takamori Saigō, who later rebelled against the government; Tonomi Iwakura, an able court noble; Toshimichi Okubo, the strong man of Satsuma; Koin Kido, an enlightened Chosu leader; Taisuke Itagaki, who led the campaign for government to represent the people of Japan; and Yukichi Fukuzawa, who introduced the Japanese reading public to Western culture. One of the most important of these reformers was Shigenobu Okuma, a confidant innovator, first party prime minister, and founder of the elite Waseda University. Almost all were of samurai background.

These modernizers appreciated the need for foreign expertise. Over half the 4,000 ‘honourable foreign experts’ were British (including Irish, Australians, Canadians, and so on). They were employed in the construction of Japanese railways and telegraph systems and in the organization of the navy, and also helped with drainage systems, newspapers, and the steel industry; Americans supervised a new postal system, new educational systems, and helped to develop Japanese agriculture; the French influenced local government, trained Japanese soldiers in modern tactics, and changed the legal system; and Germans assisted with the development of medicine and local government.

Industry developed steadily with state support, and a large export trade was built up, but Japan's independence and security were still in danger at this time. The Japanese feared that the Europeans and the US would try to take control of parts of Japan, as they had done in China.

Territorial issues In the 1870s the Meiji government took steps to reduce the dangers of attack by foreign powers by taking firmer control over outlying Japanese territories such as the Bonin Islands and the Ryukyu Islands to the south of Japan. To the north Japan gave up its claim to Sakhalin to Russia in exchange for undisputed possession of the Kuril Islands.

The Korean question Korea, only 185 km/115 mi away, also concerned Japan because Japanese leaders felt that its weakness might lead it to being taken over by a Western power. Such a power would then be in a position to attack Japan. In 1873 some members of the Meiji government strongly urged that Japan invade Korea, but were outmanoeuvred by a group that put internal modernization first.

At this time many Japanese felt that security was best achieved by not upsetting or threatening the European powers and the USA. These powers were also Japan's main trading partners. Japan also tried to maintain friendly relations with China. Japan therefore made no real challenge to China's traditional control and influence over Korea for some years, until in the 1890s Russia began to build the Trans-Siberian Railway. Japanese suspicions of Russia's ambitions now made it seem crucial to establish Japanese influence in Korea.

The Sino-Japanese War of 1894–95 In 1894 an opportunity to get involved in Korea was provided by China's despatch of troops to put down an uprising there. The Japanese army also sent troops and made demands that the Chinese could not accept. War soon followed. It resulted in overwhelming victory for the Japanese. The Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895) declared Korea independent, ceded to Japan part of Manchuria, Formosa (Taiwan), and the nearby islands of the Pescadores, compelling China to pay 300 million taels indemnity (equivalent to US$150/£37.5 million).

Japan's victory was hard won, having cost 20,000 lives and the equivalent of £20 million. The interference of the European powers of Russia, France, and Germany (the ‘Triple Intervention’) and its own crippled condition forced it to give back to China the territory on the mainland, together with Port Arthur (modern Dalian), the strategic naval base on the Liaodong Peninsula between Manchuria and Korea. However, in 1910 Japan formerly annexed Korea, which remained a Japanese possession until 1945.

The Russo-Japanese War The gradual encroachment of Russia in Korea, and the concessions granted to that country by China, were watched by Japan with increasing anxiety. In 1904 matters came to a head and Japan declared war against Russia (see Russo-Japanese War). To the amazement of the West, Russia was defeated, peace was concluded in 1905, and a treaty was signed at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, USA. The treaty gave Japan the southern half of Sakhalin and compelled the Russians to evacuate Manchuria.

Treaties with the Western powers In 1902 a defensive alliance had been concluded between Japan and Great Britain. In 1905 a new Anglo–Japanese treaty was signed in London for the purposes of maintaining peace in eastern Asia. The treaty ensured the security and independence of China, with a policy of the ‘open door’ for all nations; and provided for the mutual defence of the territorial rights of Britain and Japan in eastern Asia and India. In 1911 the Anglo–Japanese treaty was renewed for ten years with modifications.

The security of China was the basis of Japanese agreements with Russia and France in 1907. A common policy towards east Asian and Pacific issues was created in identical notes between Japan and the USA in 1908. In 1910, 1911, and 1912 Japan signed agreements with Russia regarding China, Manchuria, and Mongolia.

Social and cultural reasons for the transformation of Japan The emperor Meiji died in 1912, having reigned for 45 years. During his time on the throne Japan had changed from a minor state to one of the world's most powerful modern nations.

For many years Japan's transformation was explained simply in terms of imitation of the West, but the roots of its successful modernization are now seen in the previous Tokugawa period, including a national market-oriented economy, large-scale urbanization, and approximately 40% male adult literacy rate.

Much of Japan's economic wealth at this time was based on the silk trade. Japan was able to produce huge quantities of silk, and benefited from its ability to produce silk at a time when disease was ravaging the European silkworm industry. Silk exports allowed Japan to balance its trade while the government imported Western technology. The farming of silk was organized on a modern economic basis, with large numbers of wealthy peasants and rural merchants taking part in trading and business matters. This gave a basis for economic change and development in Japan in the 19th century.

One of the most important motivations for development was nationalism. Geographical separation, accentuated by two centuries of self-chosen semi-isolation, had created a distinctive culture, and among educated Japanese a strong sense of national identity had developed.

Military development was encouraged by the samurai who were keen to adopt the modern methods of warfare used in Europe and the USA. The determination to protect Japanese culture and territory led intelligent samurai first to experiment with foreign military techniques and weapons, then to appreciate the need for political unity, and finally to understand that military strength required economic growth.

Inspired by the slogan ‘Fukoku kyohei’ (‘enrich the country, strengthen the army’), large numbers of samurai overcame their traditional opposition to trading and engaged in business. Many failed, but some, like Yataro Iwasaki, who founded the now enormous Mitsubishi company, became successful entrepreneurs. Indeed, samurai and peasant–merchants played a more crucial role in economic innovation than did the wealthy but conservative urban merchants.

Of comparable significance was the role of the samurai in strengthening the new political system after 1868. Almost every top government leader, and most bureaucrats, army and navy officers, and policemen were of well-educated samurai background, as were many teachers. Not all samurai responded positively to the new situation, of course, and there were samurai as well as peasant revolts in most regions of Japan at first, but after 1877 the government was firmly in control with its conscript army (introduced in 1873).

A final important factor in Japan's modernization was the absence of an overpopulation problem until the 1920s. Unlike most countries Japan had witnessed very slow population growth after 1700. Population stability played a big part in the continuation of the Japanese family system, which itself made a significant contribution to stability. Many urban workers were peasants' sons who found work through family connections, and they felt that they should not disgrace their family, either by letting down their employer or by returning home if the economy declined and they lost their jobs. Many employers adopted a paternalistic attitude towards their employees, even though they worked them hard. The oyabun–kobun (parent-role–child-role) relationship became common outside the family itself and, with its mutual obligations, is one of the most fundamental features of Japanese life today.

Nevertheless, despite relative population stability there was still some overpopulation in Japan. When peasant farmers got into debt, as they often did after 1870s when land taxes were made payable in cash instead of crops, they were more likely to be forced into renting their land than to move to the city. The terms of rental agreements favoured the landlord, and the fact that between 1890 and 1946 nearly half the peasants were tenant farmers was Japan's major pre-war social problem.

The Japanese outlook It is only against the background of Japan's social and political structure that its world outlook in the 20th century can be understood. Centuries of geographical and intellectual isolation restricted that outlook, and Japan's absorption of the spirit of Chinese and Western culture was often selective, with a view to preserving its own distinctive traditions.

Many traditional attitudes survived into the modern period. Reverence for the emperor was extended to the whole population through the compulsory educational system. Marriages arranged by go-betweens became more, rather than less, common. Businessmen prided themselves on being the successors of the warrior samurai class as defenders of the well-being of the country. The new legal codes continued to favour men in general and eldest sons in particular.

The emergence of the military–industrial society The much extolled Meiji restoration resulted in a new hierarchical society, based on a mixture of modern industrialism and medieval feudalism which favoured militarism from above. Military expansion followed naturally. Korea was overrun and there were dramatic victories over China and Russia in 1895 and 1905. After the unification of Germany under Bismarck, military training in Japan was based upon the German system. The Meiji period also brought with it the rise of the zaibatsu, or the modern Japanese financial oligarchy. Japan's earliest modern industries were war industries. It was during the Sino–Japanese wars that the Mitsui (already well established) and Mitsubishi combines developed their power, controlling most Manchurian enterprises and giving their support ultimately to all the dominant militarists.

Politics in the Meiji period Political parties were organized in this period, but democracy was not fully accepted. Japan's parliament, the Diet, had limited power and was often no more than a front for decisions that were made between various powerful groups, such as bureaucrats, businessmen, military officers, the emperor's official and unofficial advisers, and political party leaders. Electoral corruption was widespread, so politicians had a low reputation. Furthermore, no Japanese ministerial cabinet could be formed without the consent of the army and the navy.

For the history of Japan during World War I and leading up to World War II, see Japan: history 1912–41. For history during World War II, see Japan: history 1941–45, and for developments after 1945 see Japan.