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Japanese art

Early Japanese art was heavily influenced by China and Korea. Like other Far Eastern countries, Japanese art represented nature from a more spiritual perspective rather than pursuing scientific realism; nature was seen as a part of a whole to be projected through the life and experience of the individual artist, a view that became more clearly expressed with the arrival of Buddhism in the 6th century. Painting gradually developed a distinct Japanese character, bolder and more angular, particularly with the spread of Zen Buddhism in the 12th century. Ink painting and calligraphy flourished, followed by book illustration and decorative screens. Japanese prints developed in the 17th century, with multicolour prints invented around 1765. Buddhist sculpture proliferated from 580, and Japanese sculptors excelled at portraits. Japanese pottery stresses simplicity.

Early Japanese art

Before the arrival of Buddhism in AD 538, Japanese art can be divided into three main areas:

Jōmon period (10,000-300 BC) This Neolithic (Late Stone Age) period produced examples of cord-marked pottery and figurines in grey and red earthenware; decoration included patterned designs, and features on the figurines.

Yayoi period (300 BC-AD 300) More elegant pottery with geometric designs was produced, along with dōtaku, bronze bells decorated with engravings.

Kofun (tumulus) period (300-552) The era is named after the great burial mounds (kofun) constructed by the chiefs of the period. Around these mounds haniwa have been uncovered, ceramic cylinders topped with terracotta figures of mounted warriors, some of which show Chinese influence. It has been suggested that the haniwa may have been intended to accompany the dead in the afterlife, although there is no firm archaeological evidence to support this. The presence of the haniwa also served to stabilize the burial mound.

Buddhist and secular art (6th-19th centuries)

Buddhist art, introduced from Korea in 552, flourished in various art forms, including sculpture, metalwork, and embroidered silk banners.

Asuka and Nara periods Art of the Asuka period (552-646) and Nara period (646-794) was influenced not only by the arrival of Buddhism, but also an influx of immigrant crafts workers from Korea and China. Painters' guilds were formed in the Asuka period. The immigrant crafts people worked most notably under Prince Umayado, a convert to Buddhism whose court saw a rapid advance in Japanese civilization in the second half of the 6th century. Religious and portrait sculptures made of bronze, clay, or lacquer flourished. Painted scrolls, screens, murals, and narrative painting survive from the Nara period. Some paintings illustrated the Jataka, collections of Buddhist legends concerning the incarnations of Buddha and elements of Buddhist philosophy. Textiles were decorated with embroidery, batik, tie-dye, stencils, and brocade.

Heian period (794-1185) Japanese national identity grew rapidly during the period. Heian Kyo was founded as the new capital, and a new Buddhism adopted that incorporated Shinto practices (the indigenous religion of Japan). Buddhism was increasingly adopted by the wider population, not just the rich and educated, although Shintoism continued to co-exist. Buddhist statues became more formalized and were usually made of wood; some workshops went into the mass-production of Buddhist sculpture. Shinto images also appeared for the first time. Until the Heian period, Japanese art had been heavily influenced by the traditions of other countries, but this began to disintegrate as Japan began to create its own secular (non-religious) style. Kana writing, a distinct Japanese calligraphic form, developed and yamato-e, a type of secular painting appeared. Yamato-e were landscape paintings of well-known scenic spots and majestic mountains, featuring favoured details such as rivers, hills of pine trees, and thatched roofs of cottages. The paintings were often used to decorate screens, as the colours were applied in flat layers, and were particularly employed in the illustration of emaki-mono narrative (story-telling) hand scrolls. Lacquerware also became more decoratively stylized.

Kamakura period (1185-1392) Sculpture and painting became vigorously realistic. Portraits were intended not only to mirror physical appearance, but also to give the subject a spiritual likeness so that their character could be recognized. Dark crystals were used for the first time to give life to the eyes. Landscape, religious, and narrative painting continued to find favour, and humorous picture scrolls grew in popularity.

Ashikaga or Muromachi period (1392-1568) Although Zen Buddhism was adopted in the Kamakura period, it did not influence Japanese art until the Ashikagra period. Zen Buddhism, with its emphasis on intense meditation and discipline, was favoured by the majority of the military who sought to break away from the ornately ceremonial nature of previous military rule. The code of the Samurai warriors, famed for their prowess and strength in the martial arts, matched the concepts of Zen Buddhism. Through the discipline of martial arts training in sword, bow, and spear, warriors could gain spiritual enlightenment. The strokes of the Samurai sword had to be spontaneous and immediate, and the same qualities influenced the rapid ink line sketches introduced by Zen priests from China in the period. The subjects of these paintings were drawn from the landscape and required the observer to be sensitive to nature and to draw in black ink, very directly and spontaneously. The Kano school of painting developed these ink line sketches into a softer, more decorative style.

Towards the end of the era, the concept of Zen became less highly esteemed, and the tea ceremony (cha-no-yu), originally practised by Buddhist monks, attracted favour, spurring growth in the production of pottery and decorated vessels and cups.

Masks and costumes were made for Nō theatre, which developed from the 14th to 16th centuries.

Momoyama period (1568-1615) Artists produced beautiful screens, sliding doors, and murals to decorate palaces and castles. Their sumptuous designs included flowers, landscapes, and figures on gold foil. European contact was also established during this period, firstly with an influx of Christian missionaries and then European traders; their arrival affected both Japanese art and culture. Christianity grew despite persecution and Western art began to break into Japanese traditions. Perspective drawing and life sketches of the environment were established. Oil painting, which began with the copying of Christian icons, was also practised.

As the tea ceremony continued to grow in strength, the Japanese were attracted to Korean pottery which was simple, easy to produce, and therefore very suitable for the teahouse. New ceramic styles were introduced, including thick glazes, and an interest arose in recreating the ‘accidental’ effects of imperfections that could occur during firing.

Tokugawa or Edo period (1615-1867) The ukiyo-e print, depicting everyday life, originated during this period. They were originally painted onto screens and hanging scrolls, but the style was later taken up by woodblock printers and used to illustrate novels. Ukiyo-e depicting celebrated beauties from the brothels, kabuki actors, and teahouse women were particularly popular. With the invention of the multi-block true colour print in 1765, images took on a wider range of subject matter although they usually incorporated stylized, beautiful women. Ukiyo-e artists include Utamaro, Hiroshige, and Hokusai.

Lacquer techniques developed and, along with textiles, became more sumptuous. Tiny carved figures (netsuke) were mostly made from ivory or wood.

Modern Japan

Although Japan had isolated itself in the 18th century, by the mid-19th century the Japanese felt that they were falling behind the rest of the world, and from 1867 they began to pursue a policy of Westernization and modernization:

Meiji period (1868-1912) Artists copied Western painting styles, particularly Impressionism, which was gaining popularity at the time. The Nihonga art style attempted to maintain a distinct Japanese style by combining traditional expressive Japanese lines with the more realistic Western approach and a broader range of colours.

Shōwa period (from 1926) Attempts were made to revive the traditional Japanese painting style and to combine traditional and foreign styles.

Fuji, Mount geisha Gyokud0, Uragami Heian ikebana

Momoyama Nara Okasura, Kakuzo Under the Wave at Kanagawa