London: architecture

London's landscape presents a wide variety of architectural styles imposed by changes in fashion, rapid expansion of population, two major destructions of the city: the Fire of London 1666 and the Blitz during World War II, and shifts in the economy such as the closure of London's historic docklands. Devastation during the Blitz and the large-scale redevelopment of London since the war have revealed layers of underlying structures reaching back to Roman Londinium, established soon after AD 43.

Roman architecture Only fragments of Roman architecture survive, mostly below street level. Part of the great Roman wall erected around the city between 190 and 225 remains above ground in the Cripplegate and Tower of London areas. Originally 5 km/3 mi long, 6 m/20 ft high, and 2.5 m/8 ft thick, the defences were reinforced with 20 outer D-shaped bastions. The mithraeum of a temple of Mithras, built 240–50, has been relocated above ground near the Walbrook. Other archaeological discoveries include an amphitheatre for 8,000 spectators and the largest basilica north of the Alps, 152 m/500 ft in length, both constructed around 120; also a communal bathhouse and a great palace with mosaics, ornamental pool, and a 130 m/425 ft-long riverside terrace. The oak floors and parts of the wooden walls and roof shingles of a Roman warehouse have been uncovered at Southwark, along with a substantial villa of the 1st and 2nd centuries AD with a hypocaust, fresco, and mosaics.

Saxon and pre-Conquest Romanesque Evidence of building from the pre-Conquest period is sparse and mainly ecclesiastical, only small portions remaining either below ground or incorporated within later structures. Above ground, the largest surviving Saxon pieces are in All Hallows Barking or All Hallows by the Tower, founded around 675, which includes an arch and parts of a stone cross. Other finds are the foundations of the Saxon church of St Albans. In 1050 Edward the Confessor began the rebuilding of the 9th century Benedictine abbey of St Peter, later Westminster Abbey. The only remains of Edward's Early Romanesque monastery are the vaulted ceiling and arches of the undercroft of the dormitory, but excavations have revealed a cruciform building larger than any European contemporary.

Norman architecture By 1100 William (I) the Conqueror had built three forts to dominate and protect the city, including the White Tower, the keep of the Tower of London. Named after Henry III white-washed its walls in the 13th century, the keep contains the small vaulted chapel of St John. Other surviving Romanesque structures include the eastern portion of the former Augustinian priory church of St Bartholomew-the-Great in Smithfield (1123–45), which contains the oldest bells in London; and the crypt of the church of St Mary-le-Bow in Cheapside. The crypt of the priory church of St John of Jerusalem, Clerkenwell (c.1140–80); and the circular aisled nave of the Temple Church (consecrated in 1185) demonstrate Late Romanesque or Transitional style, when Norman was evolving into Gothic. The Temple Church was almost completely rebuilt during the 19th century, and seriously damaged in World War II.

Medieval Gothic The greatest Gothic church in London was the original St Paul's, which dominated the city with its lofty spire 150 m/490 ft high. The spire was struck by lightning in 1561 and never replaced, and the whole building perished in the Great Fire of London. Westminster Abbey was built in stages between 1245 and 1420, Henry VII's Chapel being added in 1502–10. The eastern part of Southwark Cathedral, formerly the Augustinian priory of St Mary Overie, was erected in the 13th to 14th centuries, but the nave was entirely rebuilt in 1890–97. Other surviving Gothic churches are the chancel of the Temple Church (1240); the chapel of Lambeth Palace (1245); parts of St Helen, Bishopsgate and St Etheldreda, Holborn (c.1300); the Chapel of the Savoy; and the parish churches of St Margaret, Westminster; St Olave, Hart Street; and St Dunstan, Stepney. A Late Gothic example is St Giles, Cripplegate (1545) which was gutted in World War II.

Hardly any examples of London's secular Gothic buildings survive owing to fires, bombing, or rebuilding. Remnants include the upper parts and magnificent roof of Westminster Hall (1394–1402) by Henry Yevele; the crypt of the Guildhall (begun 1411); the hall of Eltham Palace (1480); the Lollards' Tower (1435); Morton's Tower (1490) at Lambeth Palace; and the old hall of Lincoln's Inn (c. 1490). St Stephen's Chapel and Cloister (1292–c. 1355), formerly part of the Palace of Westminster, is now incorporated in the Houses of Parliament. Crosby Hall (c. 1460–70), a merchant hall originally located in Bishopsgate, was re-erected in Chelsea in 1909. The half-timbered front of Staple Inn, Holborn, though built as late as 1586, is typical of London dwellings of the late Gothic period. It was restored in 1886 and reconstructed in 1937.

Early Renaissance, Elizabethan, and Jacobean architecture Buildings in the English Early Renaissance style, covering a period from 1558 to 1625, are Holland House, Kensington (1605–07); and the magnificently-roofed halls of the Middle Temple (1562–70), Staple Inn (1581), Gray's Inn (1555–60), and the Charterhouse (1565–1611), which were severely damaged in World War II. Others surviving intact are Charlton House, Greenwich (1607–12); and No. 17 Fleet Street, formerly the Inner Temple Gatehouse (c. 1611). The timbered front of Paul Pindar's house in Bishopsgate (c. 1610) and a beautiful panelled room from the palace of Bromley-le-Bow (1606) are now exhibited at the Victoria and Albert Museum.

Early 17th-century Palladian architecture During the reign of James I, Inigo Jones revolutionized English architecture with the introduction of classical Palladian style, which incorporated features of 16th-century Italian Renaissance design by Andrea Palladio. His greatest projects were the Queen's House at Greenwich (1616–35) and the Banqueting House in Whitehall (1619–22), with a magnificent ceiling painted by Rubens (restored in 1964). In 1631 he designed the church of St Paul, Covent Garden, and also laid out the square; the church was rebuilt to the same design in 1795–98. Other works included the chapel of Marlborough House (1623–26); the Queen's Chapel, St James's (1623–27); and possibly Lindsey House in Lincoln's Inn Fields (c. 1640). Buildings attributed to the architect, but with no proof, are the chapel of Lincoln's Inn (1617); the Water Gate of York Stairs (1626); and Ashburnham House, Westminster (c. 1640). During the disturbances of the English Civil War very little construction took place.

Baroque architecture Originally a professor of astronomy at Oxford in 1660, Christopher Wren's interests had already turned to architecture before the Fire of London; he designed the Sheldonian Theatre, Oxford, in 1664, and had been consulted on the condition of the original St Paul's Cathedral. After the fire, his enormous practice in London included the complete rebuilding of St Pauls and 51 churches in the City of London in a restrained baroque idiom. The 69 m/226 ft-high spire of Wren's St Bride's Church (1703) inspired the first wedding cake. He also restored Westminster Abbey and made additions to Christ's Hospital (now demolished), and the royal palaces of Kensington, St James's, Westminster, and Whitehall. His many other projects included buildings in the Middle Temple; the military hospital at Chelsea and naval hospital at Greenwich; Marlborough House; and the West End churches of St James, Piccadilly; and St Anne, Soho. Several of the 44 City livery halls destroyed in the fire were rebuilt in Wren's style, but there is no evidence that he created the designs; few survived the Blitz of World War II.

Georgian Neo-Classicism The Fifty New Churches Act 1711 inspired a boom in ecclesiastical construction, much of which incorporated Neo-Classicism, a revival of classical Greek and Roman styles. In London Nicholas Hawksmoor, whose baroque designs contained Gothic and classical elements, created St Mary Woolnoth (1716–27); St Anne, Limehouse (1712–24); Christ Church, Spitalfields (1723–29); St George, Bloomsbury (1720–30), St Alphege, Greenwich (1712–14); and St George-in-the-East (1715–23). Works by the neoclassical architect James Gibbs were St Martin-in-the-Fields (1722–26); St Mary-le-Strand (1714–17); and St Peter, Vere St (1723–24). The Italian baroque St John the Evangelist, Westminster (1714–28) was built by Thomas Archer.

Secular buildings in the first half of the 18th century included the Palladian Chiswick House (1725–29) by Richard Burlington; part of St Bartholomew's Hospital (1730) by Gibbs; the neoclassical Mansion House (1739–52), official residence of the Lord Mayor, by George Dance, the Younger; and various works at Greenwich Hospital by Hawksmoor and the baroque architect John Vanbrugh, who also built ‘Vanbrugh Castle’ at Greenwich.

During this period London was spreading rapidly westwards. Lincoln's Inn Fields, Covent Garden, and the Leicester and Bloomsbury squares, laid out between 1618 and 1665, were followed by the Grosvenor, Berkeley, Kensington, St James's, Red Lion, Golden, Hanover, and Cavendish squares from around 1688 to 1717. Charming examples of early 18th-century brick terraced houses survive at Queen Anne's Gate, Westminster; and in Church Row, Hampstead.

The second half of the century produced the Neo-Palladian Somerset House (1776–86) by William Chambers. His chief rival, Robert Adam, laid out the Adelphi estate near the Strand (1768–72), now mainly demolished; and Portland Place with its adjoining streets (1773 onwards). Other buildings by Adam include Kenwood House, near Hampstead; and the handsome houses of 20 St James's Square (1772–74), and 20 Portman Square (1775–77). Bedford, Manchester, and Fitzroy squares were planned between 1775 and 1790.

Regency architecture Although the Regency of Prince George (later George IV) only lasted from 1811 to 1820, Regency style architecture is commonly associated with the period from around 1800 to 1837. London's principal architect of the era was John Nash who laid out Regent's Park, with its surrounding terraces and crescents, and a continuous street leading to the prince's Carlton House, now the site of Carlton House Terrace. The street was an extension of the existing Portland Place, proceeding from All Souls' Church (built by Nash, 1822–25) with the addition of Waterloo Place and Regent Street. The buildings of Regent Street, originally colonnaded, were all replaced early in the 20th century, but Park Crescent and the fine terraces around the park still stand, some of them having been reconstructed behind their facades. Nash also reconstructed Buckingham Palace (1821–36), but a new front was added in 1931.

Other imposing buildings of the Regency period are the works of William Wilkins, pioneer of the Greek Revival style in England, who built the National Gallery (1834–38); University College (1827–28), the first college of the University of London; and St George's Hospital (1828–29). Decimus Burton (1800–1801) designed the new layout of Hyde Park with a triumphal arch at Hyde Park Corner (1821), the Athenaeum Club (1827), Charing Cross Hospital (1831–34), and the Palm House, Kew Gardens (1844–48). The neoclassical British Museum (1823–47) was designed by Robert Smirke, and the Greek-style St Pancras Church (1819–22) by H W Inwood. John Soane designed his own neoclassical house in Lincoln's Inn Fields (1812–13), now the Soane Museum. Between 1825 and 1830 the districts of Belgravia and Pimlico were covered with classical-style stucco houses.

19th-century Gothic Revival Developing abreast of the mania for classical architecture, the Gothic Revival style was popularized by the works of Augustus Pugin early in the 19th century. His own principal project in London was the Roman Catholic St George's Cathedral, Southwark (1841), although it was never completed and was badly damaged in the Blitz. In collaboration with Charles Barry, he helped to design the neo-Gothic Houses of Parliament (1840–60).

The most outstanding of the early Gothic Revival churches was St Luke, Chelsea (1820–24); after its appearance, most new churches throughout the Victorian era were designed in the Gothic style. The finest examples of ecclesiastical Gothic architecture are All Saints, Margaret Street (1849), by William Butterfield; the Catholic Apostolic Church, Gordon Square (1849), by Brandon; St Mary Abbots, Kensington (1869–72), by Gilbert Scott; St Augustine, Kilburn (1871), by J L Pearson; Holy Trinity, Sloane Square (1890), by Sedding; and Holy Trinity, Kensington (1902), by G F Bodley.

Secular Gothic architecture also became increasingly fashionable. The foremost Gothic Revival buildings in England after the Houses of Parliament, were the Law Courts (1866–68) by George Street. The neo-Gothic buildings of Alfred Waterhouse, such as the Natural History Museum (1873–80), were typified by his use of coloured bricks and tiles.

19th-century classical and other architecture Secular public building in the classical style remained popular throughout the century, prime examples being the Royal Exchange (1840) by William Tite, and the surviving tower of the Imperial Institute (1887–93) by T E Collcutt. Other trends included the new Queen Anne style pioneered by Norman Shaw in collaboration with W E Nesfield (1835–1888), which was inspired by 17th-century Dutch domestic architecture. Examples of Shaw's work include Swan House, Chelsea (1876) and the church of St Michael, Bedford Park (1878). One of London's most spectacular structures was Crystal Palace, a prefabricated glass and iron structure created by Joseph Paxton to house the Great Exhibition in 1951.

Outstanding among London's 19th-century architecture were the railway termini, cathedral-like structures built by engineers, novel in construction and modern in concept. Euston (1840) was London's first grand station, a neoclassical construction built by Philip Hardwick (1792–1870), but it was demolished during redevelopment in the 1960s. In 1850 Isambard Brunel and Matthew Wyatt (1820–77) began the construction of Paddington station, and in the following year King's Cross (1851–52) was designed by Lewis Cubitt (1799–1883). St Pancras (1868–74), the work of W H Barlow, was constructed with a single-span shed, 30 m/100 ft high and 74 m/243 ft wide, and incorporated a Gothic hotel by Gilbert Scott. The Gothic Liverpool Street station was begun in 1874 by E Wilson, and extended in 1894.

Edwardian architecture During the early years of the 20th century most public buildings were designed in a grandiose Renaissance or ‘free Classic’ idiom. Examples included the London County Hall (1908 onwards) by R Knott; the Central Hall at Westminster (1905) by Lanchester and Rickards; the Port of London building (1912) by E Cooper; and the quadrant of Regent St (1920–23) by R Blomfield. Aston Webb's Victoria and Albert Museum (1899–1909) incorporated a medley of styles. Norman Shaw's later imperial baroque style is demonstrated in his Piccadilly Hotel (1905). Erected in 1903, Westminster Cathedral's Byzantine appearance was deliberately chosen by John Bentley to avoid clashing with the Gothic architecture of Westminster Abbey.

Early 20th-century modernism The Modern Movement, originating in Western Europe in the 1920s and taken up enthusiastically by the USA, occurred relatively late in London. Its early international style, dominated by geometric forms, appeared in Charles Holden's Manhattan-style London Transport headquarters, St James's Park (1927–29); and Senate House library, London University (1932–39). In the 1930s Berthold Lubetkin's pioneering designs, which employed reinforced concrete to sculptural effect, included the apartment block of Highpoint I, Highgate (1933–35) and the Penguin Pool, London Zoo (1933). The functional, linear quality of international style architecture was favoured by numerous business organizations, the Peter Jones store, Sloane Square (1936) being an excellent example. Battersea Power Station (1932–34) was designed by Giles Gilbert Scott, with an art deco interior. Listed in 1980, it was closed in 1983, and renovated as part of a leisure complex.

Post-war modernism, postmodernism, and high-tech Rebuilding since the war has been extensive and, despite the predominance of commercial priorities and the constrictions of planning and building regulations, the architect has generally been given a free hand. Modernist trends continued within architectural practices such as Yorke, Rosenberg & Mardall, who delivered the style in an undiluted form to schools and buildings in the 1950s and 1960s, including St Thomas's Hospital (1966–75). Residential schemes included the Pimlico housing development by modernist architect Jacko Moya. The 1951 Festival of Britain on the South Bank was marked by the construction of the Royal Festival Hall (1949–51) by Robert Matthew and Leslie Martin, now part of the South Bank cultural complex. Later additions to the centre included Denys Lasdun's National Theatre (1967–76), layered to create the effect of geological strata.

Brutalism, an early offshoot of modernism, was developed in the 1950s and 1960s by the Smithsons, who employed its uncompromising functionalism in the Economist Building (1964) and Robin Hood Gardens (1968–72).

The city skyline began to rise in the 1960s with the construction of Centre Point (1963–67), which rose to 120 m/310 ft. Other early high-rise edifice included Hyde Park Barracks (1967–70), designed by Basil Spence; the Barbican residential arts and conference complex; the 124 m/403 ft-high Euston Centre (1963); and the Post Office Tower, reaching 124 m/574 ft.

Following the shift to container shipment and the expansion of downstream depots, the London port facilities between Tower Bridge and Barking Creek were closed between 1967 and 1982, providing enormous opportunities for redevelopment and architectural innovation in the Docklands area. Canary Wharf is the world's largest office development project, the first phase of which was completed in 1992.

Rejection of the modernist preoccupation with purity of form and technique resulted in the appearance of postmodernist design, which applied an amalgam of style elements from the past to spare modern forms, often with ironic effect. Quinlan Terry, working in a neoclassical idiom, created a large scale riverside project at Richmond in 1984, and the eclectic postmodernist architecture of Terry Farrell includes the Embankment Place scheme (1991) on Charing Cross station, which has been likened to a giant jukebox; and the TV AM building, Camden (1981–82), topped by giant egg cups. Canary Wharf's central skyscraper (1991) designed by US architect Cesar Pelli, sports a pyramid-shaped crown in stainless steel and is the second tallest in Europe at 244 m/800 ft. The 49-storey National Westminster Tower (1971) had previously been London's tallest building.

Richard Rogers' Lloyd's of London building (1986) and the award-winning Reuters building, Blackwall Yard (1992) are outstanding examples of late 20th-century high-tech, which concentrates on technical innovation and use of exposed structures. The Financial Times printing works (1988) by Nicholas Grimshaw incorporates a clear glass wall to reveal the machinery.

The Globe Theatre, a reconstruction of the original open-air playhouse built in 1599, opened in 1996.