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Luxembourg

Capital of the country of Luxembourg, on the Alzette and Pétrusse rivers, south of the Ardennes uplands; population (2005 est) 76,400. The 16th-century Grand Ducal Palace, European Court of Justice, and European Parliament secretariat are situated here, but plenary sessions of the parliament are now held only in Strasbourg, France. Industries include steel, chemicals, textiles, and processed food.

A Roman fortress was built on the rocky plateau to control movement between France and Germany. The old town, including the 17th-century cathedral and town hall (1830–38), stands on the plateau. It is connected with the lower town, lying in a ravine, by flights of steps. Development has spread across lower areas, linked by bridges.

Luxembourg

Province of southeastern Belgium, part of the French-speaking community and Walloon region; area 4,400 sq km/1,698 sq mi; population (1995 est) 240,300. The capital is Arlon and other towns and cities include Bastogne, St Hubert, and Bouillon. The province is situated in the southeastern Ardennes and is widely forested. To the south is the Belgian Lorraine, part of the Paris Basin. The rivers Ourthe, Semois, and Lesse run through the province. The province's unpredictable climate and thin soil limit its agricultural production. Cattle and pig raising predominates. Agricultural output includes dairy products and tobacco, and the major industries are iron and steel.

The area was formerly part of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, and became a Belgian province in 1831.

Luxembourg

Landlocked country in Western Europe, bounded north and west by Belgium, east by Germany, and south by France.

Government

Luxembourg is a multiparty parliamentary democracy, with a prime ministerial political executive and a hereditary and constitutional monarchy as head of state. The 1868 constitution, revised in 1919 and 1956, provides for a single-chamber legislature, the 60-member chamber of deputies, elected by universal suffrage through a system of proportional representation, for a five-year term. There is also a second chamber, the council of state, whose 21 members are appointed by the grand duke for life and which advises the lower house in the drafting of legislation. Any of its decisions can be overruled by the chamber of deputies. The grand duke also appoints a prime minister and council of ministers who are collectively responsible to the chamber. The country also has a constitutional court.

History

The area that is now Luxembourg was occupied by the Franks in the 5th century BC, and later became part of the empire of Charlemagne. Luxembourg established itself as an independent entity in the 10th century, and its rulers took the title of count of Luxembourg in the 11th century, taking their name from the castle of Lucelin-burhuc. In 1308 Count Henry became king of Germany as Henry VII, and Holy Roman emperor in 1312.

Habsburg rule

Henry's grandson, the Emperor Charles IV, raised Luxembourg to the rank of a duchy in 1354. In 1443 it was united with Burgundy, and in 1482, along with the rest of the Low Countries, it passed into Habsburg hands on the marriage of Mary, the Burgundian heiress, to Archduke Maximilian of Austria. On the division of the Habsburg lands in 1555–56 following the abdication of Charles V, Luxembourg passed to the Spanish Habsburgs. It played no part in the Dutch revolt

against Spanish rule, and, along with what is now Belgium, remained part of the Spanish Netherlands when the independence of the northern Netherlands was acknowledged in 1648.

In 1683–84 Louis XIV of France conquered Luxembourg, but was forced to return it to Spain in 1697. By the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) ending the War of the Spanish Succession, Luxembourg and the rest of the Spanish Netherlands was transferred from the Spanish to the Austrian Habsburgs.

Independence

During the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars Luxembourg was ceded to France at the Peace of Campo Formio in 1797. At the Congress of Vienna in 1815 it was created a grand duchy (the king of the Netherlands being grand duke) and became part of the German Confederation (see German history 1815–1919).

In 1830 Belgium and Luxembourg revolted against Dutch rule. Belgium achieved independence in 1839 and most of Luxembourg became part of it, the rest becoming independent in its own right in 1848. By the Treaty of London in 1867 it was declared a neutral independent state. When William III of the Netherlands died in 1890, Luxembourg passed to the Duke of Nassau.

In 1914 Luxembourg was overrun by the Germans and was occupied by them until the end of World War I in 1918. In 1919, by the Treaty of Versailles, it was declared free of all German ties. In 1921 a bill was passed for the economic union of Luxembourg with Belgium and the use of Belgian currency. Luxembourg was occupied again by the Germans in World War II, from 1940 to 1944.

Role in Europe

In April and May 1948 constitutional changes were decided upon, the most important of which was the abandonment of unarmed neutrality, imposed upon the grand duchy in 1867, enabling Luxembourg to become a member of NATO. Luxembourg formed an economic union with Belgium and the Netherlands in 1948 (Benelux), which became fully effective in 1960 and was the forerunner of wider European cooperation.

Although a small country, Luxembourg occupies an important position in Western Europe, being a founding member of many international organizations, including the

European Coal and Steel Community, the European Atomic Energy Commission, and the European Economic Community (the predecessor of the European Union). The European Court of Justice and the secretariat of the European Parliament are located in Luxembourg, as well as some offices of the European Union Commission.

Luxembourg voted in favour of ratification of the Maastricht Treaty in 1992, although it sought exemption from the treaty's clause requiring that residents from other member nations be allowed to vote in local elections. About one-third of the duchy's population are foreigners.

Internal affairs

Grand Duchess Charlotte (1896–1985) abdicated in 1964 after a reign of 45 years, and was succeeded by her son Jean.

Proportional representation resulted in a series of coalition governments after World War II. The Christian Social Party (PCS) headed most of these from 1945 until 1974, when its dominance was challenged by the Socialists. It regained preeminence in 1979, first under the leadership of Pierre Werner, and, from 1984, under Jacques Santer. In July 1994 Santer was chosen to succeed Jacques Delors as president of the European Commission. Jean-Claude Juncker, also of the PCS, replaced Santer as prime minister in January 1995.

In October 2000, Crown Prince Henri acceded to the throne following the abdication of his father Grand Duke Jean, who had reigned for 36 years.

Benelux Bourbon dynasty Echternach Esch-sur-Alzette eurozone Lehár, Franz Longwy Low Countries Luxembourg, Palais de Maginot Line

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