medieval art

An English medieval painting of the lord of the manor in his garden. Most of the art of this period was in the form of illuminated manuscripts, carvings, and wall paintings.

A scene from the Luttrell Psalter, a 13th-century English manuscript. This scene shows a man playing bagpipes.

A farmyard scene with men shearing sheep, from the The Hours of the Blessed Virgin Mary, a 15th-century French manuscript.

A fresco from the Cycle of Months by the Bohemian artist Torre Aquila Trento. In high summer, courtiers disport themselves outside a manor house, fishing, hawking, and playing at courtly love, while in the background peasants scythe and rake the fields.

Calendar for October, from an 11th-century English manuscript. Farm workers are gathering in the hay crop with scythes and pitchforks.

Four English kings are shown in this illumination from a 13th-century English manuscript of Historia Anglorum, which was written by Henry of Huntingdon between 1130 and 1154, and describes English history from 55 BC. The four kings are (from left to right and top to bottom) William I, William II, Henry I, and Stephen.

A 14th-century manuscript showing Greek philosopher Aristotle teaching the young Alexander, later Alexander the Great, king of Macedon. Typically, the illustration uses medieval dress and architecture to show a scene from many centuries earlier. Aristotle, himself a pupil of the Greek philosopher Plato, was appointed tutor to the young Alexander in 342 BC.

A 15th-century manuscript from Siena, Italy, of the Historia Naturalis, an immense encyclopedia probably completed in AD 77 by the Roman writer Pliny the Elder. The Historia makes no distinction between the real and the imaginary, but provides a fascinating insight into Roman learning in the 1st century AD.

A view of London, England, from a manuscript of the poems of Charles, Duke of Orléans (1394–1465). The principal building is the White Tower in the Tower of London. Charles of Orléans was taken prisoner at the Battle of Agincourt and spent 25 years in England before being ransomed in 1440.

An illustration in a 15th-century manuscript shows the siege of Brest, France. The Duke of Lancaster, with cannon, ladders, and arrows, laid siege to Brest Castle in 1373. The scene is typical of the sporadic fighting of the Hundred Years' War. The English won victories at Crécy, Poitiers, and Agincourt, but by 1453, the French had regained all but Calais.

The capture of Antioch in 1098 is depicted in this 15th-century illustration from the Miroir Historial by Vincent de Beauvais. The battle for Antioch was one of the most hard-fought of the First Crusade, but the crusaders were inspired by the discovery of a lance said to have wounded Christ on the cross, and were able to win the city.

Crusaders at Damietta during the Fifth Crusade (1217–21), in a 15th-century illustration from the Miroir Historial by Vincent de Beauvais. Damietta, in Egypt, was captured during the Fifth Crusade, but the crusaders did not hold it for long. They eventually abandoned the town in exchange for a truce.

A detail from an 11th-century manuscript showing King William I of England. William was duke of Normandy, a part of France settled by Norsemen since 911. He claimed that Edward the Confessor had bequeathed him the English throne. When the English instead elected Harold Godwinson as king, he invaded and defeated and killed Harold at Hastings.

The visitation of Elizabeth and the nativity, depicted on a 12th-century marble baptismal font (San Giovanni in Fonte, Verona, Italy). Early Christian baptism took place by total immersion, so baptismal fonts were large and usually built into the floor of a separate building. Later, when child baptism replaced adult baptism, the font could be made smaller and was usually placed in the church itself.

In this 15th-century painting on the walls of South Leigh church in Oxfordshire, St Michael, with wings and sword raised, weighs a departed soul in the balance. On the left, the Virgin Mary uses rosary beads in an attempt to tip the balance in favour of salvation. On the opposite side, devils with trumpets and pitchforks try to ensure the soul is damned.

Painting and sculpture of the Middle Ages in Europe and parts of the Middle East, dating roughly from the 3rd century to the emergence of the Renaissance in Italy in the 1400s. This includes early Christian, Byzantine, Celtic, Anglo-Saxon, and Carolingian art. The Romanesque style was the first truly international style of medieval times, superseded by Gothic in the late 12th century. Religious sculpture, frescoes, and manuscript illumination proliferated; panel painting was introduced only towards the end of the Middle Ages.

Early Christian art

(4th–5th centuries AD) In AD 313 Constantine the Great formally recognized Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire. In response, churches were built and commissioned art took on the subject matter of the Christian saints and symbols. Roman burial chests (sarcophagi) were adopted by the Christians and the imagery of pagan myths gradually gave way to biblical themes.

Byzantine art

(4th–15th centuries) Byzantine art developed in the Eastern Roman Empire, centred on Byzantium (renamed Constantinople in 330; Istanbul from 1453).

The use of mosaic associated with Byzantine art also appears in church decoration in the West. In Ravenna, for example, churches of the 5th and 6th centuries present powerful religious images on walls and vaults in brilliant, glittering colour and a bold, linear style. The Byzantine style continued for many centuries in icon painting in Greece and Russia.

Celtic and Anglo-Saxon art

(4th–9th centuries) Stemming from the period when southern Europe was overrun by Germanic tribes from the north, this early medieval art consists mainly of portable objects, such as articles for personal use or adornment. Among the invading tribes, the Anglo-Saxons, particularly those who settled in the British Isles, excelled in metalwork and jewellery, often in gold with garnet or enamel inlays, ornamented with highly stylized, plant-based interlaced patterns with animal motifs. The ornament of Celtic art and Anglo-Saxon art was translated into stone-carving, from simple engraved monoliths to elaborate sculpted crosses, as well as the illuminated manuscripts produced in Christian monasteries, such as the decorated pages of the Northumbrian 7th-century Lindisfarne Gospels (British Museum, London) or the Celtic 8th-century Book of Kells (Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland). Illumination usually included a large, decorated initial to mark the opening of a gospel or passage, sometimes with an elaborate facing or ‘carpet page’.

Carolingian art

(late 8th–early 9th centuries) Carolingian art centred around manuscript painting, which flourished in Charlemagne's empire, drawing its inspiration from the late classical artistic traditions of the early Christian, Byzantine, and Anglo-Saxon styles. Several monasteries produced richly illustrated prayer books and biblical texts. Carved ivories and delicate metalwork, especially for book covers, were also produced.

Romanesque or Norman art

(10th–12th centuries) This is chiefly evident in church architecture and church sculpture, on capitals and portals, and in manuscript illumination. Romanesque art was typified by the rounded arch, and combined naturalistic elements with the fantastic, poetical, and pattern-loving Celtic and Germanic traditions. Imaginary beasts and medieval warriors mingle with biblical themes. Fine examples remain throughout Europe, from northern Spain and Italy to France, the Germanic lands of the Holy Roman Empire, England, and Scandinavia, although in Italy, the classical influence remained strong.

Gothic art

(12th–15th centuries) Gothic art developed as large cathedrals were built in Europe. Sculptural decoration in stone became more monumental, and stained glass filled the tall windows, as at Chartres Cathedral, France. Figures were also carved in wood. Court patronage produced exquisite small ivories, goldsmiths' work, devotional books illustrated with miniatures, and tapestries depicting romantic tales. Panel painting, initially on a gold background, evolved in northern Europe into the more realistic International Gothic style. In Italy fresco painting made great advances; a seminal figure in this development was the artist Giotto di Bondone, whose work is seen as proto-Renaissance.