petroleum
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Natural mineral oil, a thick greenish-brown flammable liquid found underground in permeable rocks. Petroleum consists of hydrocarbons mixed with oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen, and other elements in varying proportions. It is thought to be derived from ancient organic material that has been converted by, first, bacterial action, then heat, and pressure (but its origin may be chemical also).
From crude petroleum, various products are made by fractional distillation and other processes; for example, fuel oil, petrol, kerosene, diesel, and lubricating oil. Petroleum products and chemicals are used in large quantities in the manufacture of detergents, artificial fibres, plastics, insecticides, fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, toiletries, and synthetic rubber.
Petroleum was formed from the remains of marine plant and animal life which existed many millions of years ago (hence it is known as a fossil fuel). Some of these remains were deposited along with rock-forming sediments under the sea where they were decomposed anaerobically (without oxygen) by bacteria which changed the fats in the sediments into fatty acids which were then changed into an asphaltic material called kerogen. This was then converted over millions of years into petroleum by the combined action of heat and pressure. At an early stage the organic material was squeezed out of its original sedimentary mud into adjacent sandstones. Small globules of oil collected together in the pores of the rock and eventually migrated upwards through layers of porous rock by the action of the oil's own surface tension (capillary action), by the force of water movement within the rock, and by gas pressure. This migration ended either when the petroleum emerged through a fissure as a seepage of gas or oil onto the Earth's surface, or when it was trapped in porous reservoir rocks, such as sandstone or limestone, in anticlines and other traps below impervious rock layers.
The modern oil industry originates in the discovery of oil in western Ontario in 1857 followed by Edwin Drake's discovery in Pennsylvania in 1859. Drake used a steam engine to drive a punching tool to 21 m/68 ft below the surface where he struck oil and started an oil boom. Rapid development followed in other parts of the USA, Canada, Mexico, and then Venezuela where commercial production began in 1878. Oil was found in Romania in 1860, Iran in 1908, Iraq in 1923, Bahrain in 1932, and Saudi Arabia and Kuwait in 1938.
The USA led in production until the 1960s, when the Middle East outproduced other areas, their immense reserves leading to a worldwide dependence on cheap oil for transport and industry. In 1961 the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was established to avoid exploitation of member countries; after OPEC's price rises in 1973, the International Energy Agency (IEA) was established in 1974 to protect the interests of oil-consuming countries. New technologies were introduced to pump oil from offshore and from the Arctic (the Alaska pipeline) in an effort to avoid a monopoly by OPEC. Global consumption of petroleum in 1993 was 23 billion barrels.
As shallow-water oil reserves dwindle, multinational companies have been developing deep-water oilfields at the edge of the continental shelf in the Gulf of Mexico. Shell has developed Mars, a 500-million-barrel oilfield, in 900 m/2,940 ft of water, and the oil companies now have the technology to drill wells of up to 3,075 m/10,000 ft under the sea. It is estimated that the deep waters of Mexico could yield 8–15 million barrels in total; it could overtake the North Sea in importance as an oil source.
In Asia, the oil pipeline from Azerbaijan through Russia to the West, which is the only major pipeline from the Caspian Sea, closed during Russia's conflict with Chechnya but reopened in 1997.
Pollution
The burning of petroleum fuel is one cause of air pollution. The transport of oil can lead to catastrophes – for example, the Torrey Canyon tanker lost off southwestern England in 1967, which led to an agreement by the international oil companies in 1968 to pay compensation for massive shore pollution. The 1989 oil spill in Alaska from the Exxon Valdez damaged the area's fragile environment, despite clean-up efforts. Drilling for oil involves the risks of accidental spillage and drilling-rig accidents. The problems associated with oil have led to the various alternative energy technologies.A new kind of bacterium was developed during the 1970s in the USA, capable of ‘eating’ oil as a means of countering oil spills.
HistoryPetroleum has been known and used for centuries. The Sumerians used it to reinforce mud bricks as early as 3800 BC. The Baku region in the Caucasus is one of the earliest known areas in the world yielding oil. The first recorded oil well was dug in South Iran in about 500 BC, and similar wells were used in the 13th century AD in Burma to provide oil to burn in lamps. Spanish galleons were caulked with bitumen collected from seepages on the shores of Lake Maracaibo in Venezuela during the Spanish conquest of the Americas. |
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