Poland: history to 1945

The Poles form a branch of the Slav peoples, and their language belongs to the West Slavonic group. Their name first appears in the 9th century as the designation of one of several tribes, the Polanie, who dwelt between the Oder and the Vistula rivers, and who laid the foundations of the Polish state.

The early Piast kings The first historical ruler, Prince Mieszko I (ruled c. 963/4–992), of the Piast dynasty, converted to Roman Christianity in 966, conquered Silesia and Kraków, and maintained his independence of the German emperor. His son, Boleslav I Chrobry (Boleslav the Brave), cooperated with Emperor Otto III of Germany, whom he entertained in Gniezno in 1000 to mark the foundation of the ecclesiastical see of Poland. Boleslav conquered Bohemia (1002–04), and through successful wars against Emperor Henry II acquired Lusatia and Milsko. He briefly occupied Kiev (1018) and extended his realm to the south and southeast, and raised the international status of Poland by becoming its first crowned king (1025).

The reign of Prince Mieszko (1025–34) was marred by internal instability, by loss of territory, and by submission to the German emperor. Casimir II (ruled 1034–58) consolidated Poland and moved the capital from Gniezno to Kraków. Boleslav II (ruled 1058–81) supported Pope Gregory VII against Emperor Henry IV and was crowned king in 1076. In 1079 he executed Stanislaw, Bishop of Kraków, and later had to flee the country. Under Ladislas Herman (1079–1102), Poland returned to dependence on the German emperor. Boleslav III Krzywousty (the Wrymouth; ruled 1102–38), an energetic ruler, tried to consolidate Poland; he annexed Pomerania and defended Silesia against the emperor and the Czechs.

The later Piast kings The division of Boleslav III's domains among his sons caused much internal dissension for two centuries, although there were also times of cultural and economic progress. This period also witnessed the growth of towns, and the settlement of Germans in many districts. The Mongols ravaged southern Poland in 1240–41 and defeated the Silesian princes at Legnica. Various districts were lost to Brandenburg, the Teutonic Knights, and Bohemia, and Poland was ruled by Czech kings between 1300 and 1306.

Ladislas I Lokietek (Ladislas the Short) reunited Poland and became king in 1320. Despite successes over the Teutonic Knights, he failed to recover eastern Pomerania. The first parliament met in 1331. Ladislas's son Casimir the Great (ruled 1333–70) greatly increased royal authority and the power and prosperity of Poland by administrative, legal, and financial reforms. Although Silesia was finally surrendered to Bohemia, Poland expanded to the southeast. Many Jews, persecuted in Western Europe, took refuge in Poland at this time. With the death of Casimir, the Piast dynasty became extinct.

The Jagiellonian dynasty Casimir was succeeded by his nephew, Louis of Anjou, king of Hungary, who increased the privileges of the nobility (1374) in order to secure the succession for his daughters. His daughter, Queen Jadwiga, married Jagiello, Grand Duke of Lithuania (1386) who became king of Poland as Ladislas II and founded the Jagiellonian dynasty, which lasted from 1386 to 1572. Poland was united with Lithuania – which then ruled a vast territory in eastern Europe, including much of Ukraine – and together they defeated the Teutonic Knights at Grunwald (1410).

Jagiello's successor, Ladislas III (ruled 1434–44), was acknowledged only in Poland proper, the Lithuanians preferring the younger son, Casimir. Ladislas was also elected king of Hungary and fell at the battle of Varna against the Turks, and was succeeded in Poland by Casimir IV (ruled 1445–92), who restored the personal union with Lithuania. Casimir recovered eastern Pomerania and West Prussia (Royal Prussia) from the Teutonic Knights in 1466 and compelled them to do homage for East Prussia. He increased the constitutional rights of the nobility, and a regular two-chamber Diet (the Sejm, the Polish parliament) was established in 1493.

The 16th century saw great cultural and political achievements, economic prosperity based on grain exports, as well as the growth of serfdom. Under Sigismund I (ruled 1506–48) Poland was allied with the Habsburgs (at this time rulers of Austria, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire) and waged wars in support of Lithuania against Muscovy (the Russian state based in Moscow), and in Moldavia. Under Sigismund II Augustus (ruled 1548–72), the last of the Jagiellonian kings, Lithuania was constitutionally joined to Poland by the Union of Lublin (1569) and a single Diet was created for the united realm.

The beginnings of the elective monarchy Protestantism flourished in Poland, and religious toleration was officially guaranteed in 1573. Succeeding monarchs supported the Jesuits and the Counter-Reformation, which advanced rapidly in the 17th century. On the extinction of the Jagiellonian kings the monarchy became elective, a reactionary nobility wielded much power, and Poland's strength declined. In 1595 Warsaw became the capital of Poland.

The first elected monarch was Henry III of France, who, however, quickly abandoned the throne of Poland for that of France, and was succeeded by Stephen Báthory (ruled 1575–86)), prince of Transylvania, a man of energy and talent, who successfully waged wars against Muscovy over Livonia (1579–82), defeating Ivan the Terrible in 1581.

Invasions and territorial losses in the 17th century Sigismund III (ruled 1587–1632), who was succeeded by his sons, Ladislas IV (ruled 1632–48) and John Casimir (ruled 1648–68), was of the Vasa dynasty, and was the crown prince of Sweden. But his election, far from improving relations between the two countries, only created conflicting dynastic claims and embittered territorial rivalry. Poland lost Riga and northern Livonia (1621) and parts of Prussia (1629) to Sweden.

Poland intervened in Muscovy, occupying Moscow (1610–12), and Sigismund's son, Ladislas, was offered the Muscovite throne in 1610, but could not enforce his claim. An indecisive war was waged against Turkey over Moldavia (1620–21). Under Ladislas IV Poland effectively held its own against Muscovy and Sweden, but was severely shaken in the reign of John Casimir by the great Cossack uprising in Ukraine (1648–54) and by foreign invasion. In 1655–56 most of Poland was occupied and ravaged by the Muscovites and Swedes, followed by Brandenburgers and Transylvanians (the so-called ‘Deluge’).

Although the invaders were eventually driven out, Poland was left exhausted, and in the subsequent treaties surrendered its suzerainty over Ducal or East Prussia to the Elector of Brandenburg (1657), almost all Livonia to Sweden (1660), and Ukraine beyond the River Dnieper, with Kiev, to Muscovy (1667). Under King Michael Korybut Wisniowiecki (ruled 1669–73), Poland lost territory to Turkey. His successor, John III Sobieski (ruled 1674–96), defeated the Turks at Vienna (1683), and brought military glory to Poland. However, he failed to strengthen the country's government and international position, which continued to decline.

Further decline in the 18th century Continuing wars with Turkey, dissension among the nobles, quarrels at the election of every king, the continuance of serfdom, and the persecution of members of Protestant and Orthodox churches laid the country open to interference by Austria, Russia, and Prussia in the 18th century.

Augustus II of Saxony succeeded Sobieski, recovered Podolia from Turkey (1699), and vainly tried to strengthen the monarchy. His involvement in the Great Northern War (1700–21) – as the ally of Peter the Great of Russia against Sweden – brought another Swedish invasion of Poland. Charles XII of Sweden expelled Augustus and imposed Stanislas I Leszczynski as king (1704). Augustus returned to Poland after Charles XII's defeat at Poltava (1709), but was unable to increase the power of the monarchy in the face of the opposition of the nobility, and growing Russian influence.

In 1733–34 Russian and Saxon forces secured Poland for Augustus III of Saxony (ruled 1733–63), expelling Leszczynski, who had claimed the throne with French support for the second time. Poland continued to decline, internal anarchy and foreign opposition preventing reforms. On the death of Augustus, Catherine II of Russia and the Czartoryski family engineered the election of Stanislaw Poniatowski, as King Stanislas Augustus (ruled 1764–95). Certain reforms were initiated (1764–66), but Russian interference and support of non-Catholic dissidents led to widespread conservative, Catholic, and patriotic resistance (1768–72).

The partitions of Poland The resulting chaos encouraged Frederick (II) the Great of Prussia to propose a partition of Poland, effected together with Austria and Russia in 1772. Poland lost a third of its territory and population and, in all but name, became a Russian protectorate. A more effective government was introduced in 1775 together with educational reforms, and a general intellectual, political, and economic revival took place. Further reforms were thwarted by Russia and conservative nobles until the Great Diet (1788–92) asserted the independence of Poland, reformed the administration, and inaugurated a hereditary constitutional monarchy (1791).

Russia, acting in support of a group of reactionary Polish nobles, invaded Poland, forced Prussia to change sides, and destroyed the new constitution (1792). The second partition by Russia and Prussia followed in 1793. A general uprising took place under Thaddeus Kościuszko in 1794; the Prussians and the Russians were initially routed, Warsaw and Wilno (Vilnius) liberated, and serfdom abolished. Internal divisions, foreign military superiority, and lack of help from Revolutionary France led to defeat and the total annihilation and partition of the rest of Poland by Russia, Prussia, and Austria in 1795. King Stanislas Augustus abdicated, and died in exile in St Petersburg in 1798.

The Napoleonic period The struggle for independence was continued by the many Polish patriots who joined the French in Italy (1797–1802), but international circumstances were unfavourable to their cause. Some nobles in Poland began to associate hopes of reunification with Emperor Alexander I of Russia.

However, Napoleon's subsequent victories over the three partitioning powers (1805–07), his presence in Poland (1808–09), and his vague promises to reconstitute Poland won him substantial support in the country. The small Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw, created out of Prussian Poland by the Treaty of Tilsit (1807),was enlarged in 1809 at Austria's expense, and participated in the disastrous French invasion of Russia in 1812. At the Congress of Vienna (1815) Poland was left partitioned, although most of the recently formed Duchy of Warsaw became a constitutional kingdom with Tsar Alexander I of Russia as king of the so-called ‘Congress Poland’.

Nationalist revolts in the 19th century Despite having a liberal constitution, Poland was ruled autocratically by Alexander, and the regime became increasingly anti-liberal after 1820. There was dissatisfaction with the new frontiers, and nationalist ferment continued, although there was marked economic progress. An uprising in Warsaw in November 1830 escalated into a full war with Russia in 1831 and the dethronement of Tsar Nicholas I, Alexander's successor as king of Poland. Despite initial successes, internal divisions between radicals and conservatives, failure to mobilize the peasantry, and Russia's greater power led to defeat and the abolition of the kingdom's constitution in 1832. Many Polish leaders and men of letters went into exile in France. Repression in Poland under Nicholas was followed after 1861 by signs of liberalization under Tsar Alexander II, but another unsuccessful uprising (1863–64) in Russian Poland brought about its total incorporation into the Russian Empire. The peasants, personally free in that area since 1807, only now obtained their own land (1864). Despite harsh Russian rule and attempts at Russification, Poland became a leading industrial region.

Meanwhile, Prussian Poland, having lost its autonomy (granted in 1815) after the revolutions of 1848, was subjected to growing Germanization, although it became an area of high agricultural productivity. The Poles retained their language and identity, and a national Polish revival began in Upper Silesia. Austrian Poland, known as Galicia, remained economically backward and experienced national and social revolts in 1846, but eventually won considerable autonomy and its own Polish administration and educational system after 1867. The Republic of Kraków (established in 1815) was annexed by Austria in 1846.

The reestablishment of Polish independence During World War I Polish political opinion remained divided. Some saw the Allies as the best hope for Polish independence, while others lent support to the Central Powers in the hope that they would drive out the Russians. Some Poles, under Józef Piłsudski, initially fought on the German side and evicted the Russians from eastern Poland, although by 1917 the Germans suspected Piłsudski's loyalty and placed him under arrest. Other Poles, under the leadership of the celebrated pianist Jan Paderewski, formed an army to fight for the Allies in France.

The successive collapse of Russia, Austria, and Germany made Polish independence possible, and a republic was proclaimed on 11 November 1918, with Piłsudski as head of state and commander-in-chief. By arrangement with the Polish National Council in Paris, Paderewski returned to Poland to become premier in January 1919. The Treaty of Versailles (June 1919) gave Poznań to Poland, together with access to the Baltic Sea via thePolish Corridor, which thus cut off East Prussia from the rest of Germany. The German–Polish frontier in East Prussia and Upper Silesia was decided by referendums, in July 1920 and May 1921. The Carpathian Mountains formed the southern border, but Poland clashed with Czechoslovakia over Cieszyn (Teschen) and held East Galicia in the face of Ukrainian resistance.

From April 1919 the Poles took advantage of the internal upheaval in the Russian Civil War to advance into Lithuania and Ukraine. In February 1920 the Bolsheviks launched a counter-attack into Poland, but were decisively defeated on the River Vistula by the Poles in August. By the Treaty of Riga (March 1921) Poland and Soviet Russia agreed on a frontier east of the Curzon Line, which had been proposed as the eastern frontier at Versailles. Poland also quarrelled with Lithuania over Wilno (Vilnius), which eventually became Polish in 1922. The Council of Ambassadors recognized the eastern frontiers in 1923. National minorities – Ukrainians, Jews, Belorussians, and Germans – comprised about 30% of the population of Poland.

From democracy to dictatorship Politically, the initial post-independence years were characterized by instability, 14 multiparty coalition governments holding power in the period 1918–26. The democratic constitution (adopted in 1921) was further weakened by repeated financial crises, and in 1926 Piłsudski was returned to power by a military coup, ruling Poland until his death in 1935. Although parliament was not abolished and political expression not forbidden, Piłsudski became increasingly authoritarian. In particular, he brought strong pressure on the opposition parties of the centre and left, imprisoning their leaders in 1930.

Poland was badly hit by the general world depression (1929–33). Foreign relations improved with the end of the Polish–German tariff war (1930), and non-aggression treaties with the USSR (1932) and Germany (1934). Poland became less dependent on France and tried to maintain a balance between its neighbours. Piłsudski's successors, the most important being Edward Śmigły-Rydz (who headed a military regime), continued to rule dictatorially, but a serious attempt was made to improve the economy, which slowly recovered after 1936.

The beginning of World War II In 1938–39 relations with Nazi Germany worsened. Hitler claimed Danzig (Gdańsk ) and the Polish Corridor, and annulled the 1934 non-aggression pact in April 1939. Following the Anglo-French guarantee to Poland (March 1939), and the Polish refusal to allow Soviet troops to enter Poland in the event of German aggression, Poland signed a mutual assistance treaty with Britain (25 August). Meanwhile Hitler and Stalin had signed a non-aggression pact (the Ribbentrop–Molotov pact), which envisaged the partition of Poland (23 August).

On 1 September 1939 superior German forces invaded Poland on three fronts. On 3 September Britain and France declared war on Germany, but did not render any military assistance to Poland. By 12 September Germany had conquered nearly all western Poland, and on 17 September Soviet troops crossed the eastern frontier. Warsaw capitulated to the Germans on 28 September. For further details of the military course of the war see World War II.

The German and Soviet occupation On 29 September Germany and the USSR agreed to divide Poland between them, annexing populations of 20 million and 15 million respectively. Wilno (Vilnius) was added to Lithuania. The western provinces of Poland, totalling about 88,000 sq km/34,000 sq mi, were incorporated into the Third Reich, and much of their Polish population was expelled into the remaining part of German-occupied Poland. This was administered from Kraków by the Central Government under a governor general, with about 103,600 sq km/40,000 sq mi.

A reign of terror and economic exploitation then began, with the ultimate aim of destroying the educated classes and the cultural heritage of Poland, and turning the rest of the population into a slave-labour force. Nearly 2 million Poles were to be deported to work in Germany. The 3 million Jews of Poland were soon herded into ghettoes. Their systematic extermination, together with that of other selected categories, began in the death camps in 1941, and the brief uprising in the Warsaw ghetto was quickly crushed.

Soviet-occupied Poland was also divided into two parts, the southeastern provinces incorporated in the Ukrainian SSR, and the northeastern provinces in the Belorussian SSR. Owners of property and all state employees with their families fell victim to Soviet methods, which were hardly more humane than those of the Nazis. About 1.5 million Poles were summarily deported to Siberia and elsewhere in the USSR in the winter of 1939–40, large numbers of them dying in transit or in the camps on arrival. At this time the liquidation of the Polish Communist Party (KPP) and the execution of its leading members was completed on Stalin's orders.

Polish forces abroad Meanwhile, abroad, President Władysław Raczkiewicz was succeeded by Ignacy Mościcki. Gen Sikorski became premier of the Polish government-in-exile in France and commander-in-chief of the Free Polish Forces. Polish units fought in France in 1940, and after the fall of France Sikorski's government, composed of all the main prewar opposition parties, moved to London. Polish pilots distinguished themselves in the Battle of Britain, and Polish troops fought in the Norwegian and North African campaigns.

During their campaign against the USSR, begun on 22 June 1941, the Germans occupied the pre-1939 eastern provinces of Poland. In July 1941 Sikorski restored diplomatic relations with Stalin. A Polish army of about 100,000 was formed in the USSR, but moved to the Middle East under British auspices and fought in North Africa and Italy in 1943–44. The Polish army in Britain participated in the Allied invasion of northwest Europe in 1944.

Resistance within Poland Polish resistance was also strong inside Poland, where a large underground Polish Home Army, loyal to the government-in-exile, had emerged by 1942. Polish communists, at home and in the USSR, regrouped as the Polish Workers' Party (PPR) in 1942, forming their own resistance movement. Although numerically insignificant at first, the communists grew in importance as the Eastern Front moved west, especially after Stalin broke off relations with the Polish government-in-exile (April 1943). The Allied camp was further disrupted by revelations of the Katyn Forest massacre of Polish officers, apparently committed by Soviet authorities.

A communist-led Polish army was formed in the USSR and participated in the Soviet offensives against Germany. As the Soviet army moved into central Poland, the USSR formed a Committee of National Liberation in Lublin (22 July 1944), but this was not recognized by the Western Allies. The Home Army, however, hoping to establish an independent government, started an uprising against the Germans in Warsaw (1 August), which, without effective outside help (the advancing Soviet armies outside the city failed to give help to the insurgents), ended tragically two months later (see Warsaw rising). The Germans then systematically razed the city, which was entered by the Soviet army only in January 1945. By March the whole of prewar Poland was occupied by the Soviet army.

During the war some 6 million Polish citizens (including some 3 million Jews, and one third of the educated elite) had perished, and the country's economy and social structure had been shattered.

For the history of Poland since 1945 see Poland.