Alexander III (died 1181)

Pope 1159–81. His authority was opposed by Frederick I Barbarossa, but Alexander eventually compelled him to render homage in 1178. He held the third Lateran Council in 1179. He supported Henry II of England in his invasion of Ireland, but imposed penance on him after the murder of Thomas à Becket.

He spent the latter part of his pontificate in exile, being driven from Rome by the republic.

Alexander III (1845–1894)

Tsar of Russia from 1881, when he succeeded his father, Alexander II. He pursued a reactionary policy, promoting Russification and persecuting the Jews. He married Dagmar (1847–1928), daughter of Christian IX of Denmark and sister of Queen Alexandra of Britain, in 1866.

A protectionist economic policy enabled rapid industrial development, which resulted in a great increase in the number of industrial workers and the spread of Marxist and social democratic ideas. In foreign affairs Alexander III strictly followed the policy of peace and non-interference; towards the end of his reign the Franco-Russian rapprochement took place.

Alexander III (1241–1286)

King of Scotland from 1249, son of Alexander II. After defeating the Norwegian forces in 1263, he was able to extend his authority over the Western Isles, which had been dependent on Norway. The later period of his reign was devoted to administrative reforms, which limited the power of the barons and brought a period of peace and prosperity to Scotland.