smoking

Inhalation (breathing in) of the fumes from burning substances, generally tobacco in the form of cigarettes. The practice is habit-forming and dangerous to health, since carbon monoxide and other toxic materials result from the combustion process. Smoking is addictive (see addiction) because of the presence of the drug nicotine in the smoke. A direct link between lung cancer and tobacco smoking was established in 1950; the habit is also linked to respiratory and coronary heart diseases. In the West, smoking is now forbidden in many public places because even passive smoking – breathing in fumes from other people's cigarettes – can be harmful. Some illegal drugs, such as crack and opium, are also smoked. In 2002, researchers estimated that there were 1.3 billion smokers worldwide, with the majority in the developing countries.

Carbon monoxide in the smoke combines with haemoglobin and reduces the amount of oxygen that the blood can carry. The link between lung cancer and tobacco smoking was established in 1950, but it is now known that all forms of cancer are more common in people who smoke. A variety of diseases of breathing and circulation are also common in smokers. Bronchitis and emphysema are typical problems for the long-term smoker (see lung). The degeneration of arteries is more likely in smokers. This results in coronary heart disease and increased risk of heart attack. Smokers are 25 times as likely to develop lung cancer, have 2–3 times the risk of heart attack and 50% will die prematurely as a result of smoking. The habit causes 4 million premature deaths annually worldwide. Researchers estimate that by 2030, smoking will lead to more than 10 million premature deaths annually.

Health risks Smoking has declined in the USA and in 2007 was at its lowest point since the beginning of World War II. Still, researchers estimated that 25% of men and 20% of women, or an estimated 45 million Americans, were smokers in 2006. In that year more than 170,000 people died from smoking-related diseases. Approximately 50% of smokers die prematurely as a result of smoking-related diseases. Manufacturers have attempted to filter out harmful substances such as tar and nicotine, and to use milder tobaccos, and governments have carried out extensive antismoking advertising campaigns. In the USA, all cigarette packaging must carry a government health warning, and television and billboard advertising of cigarettes is illegal.

Passive smoking Passive smoking is a cause of lung cancer. US researchers in 2007 estimated that more than 3,000 people die annually in the USA as a result of passive smoking. Cigarette smoke contains at least 40 known carcinogens. Children whose parents smoke suffer an increased risk of asthma and respiratory infections.

Addiction Scientific studies have revealed considerable evidence of nicotine's addictive properties, showing that it acts on the brain in the same way as addictive drugs, releasing the ‘feel-good’ chemical dopamine. The US Food and Drug Administration officially accepted that nicotine is an addictive drug in 1996.

Legal matters The first successful lawsuit brought by an individual against a tobacco company and involving financial compensation was made in 1988. However, the ruling was later overturned on a technicality and the plaintiff dropped the case due to lack of funds. For the first time, in 1996, a successful lawsuit by a former smoker was made against a US offshoot of the British-American Tobacco (BAT) multinational. The former smoker, who was awarded US$500,000 by a Florida jury, claimed that the cigarette-maker had been negligent in not warning him about the danger to his health. The largest-ever individual jury award for a smoking liability case, US$3 billion, was made against the Philip Morris tobacco company by a jury in Los Angeles, California, in 2001.

In 1997, the US tobacco industry agreed a settlement with the US government of US$368 billion. The following year, 46 US states signed a further deal with four major tobacco companies, agreeing that the companies would pay US$206 billion to cover the cost of treating smoking-related illnesses.

The first successful lawsuit by a passive smoker was brought by a barmaid in Australia in May 2001. The court found against her employer, saying it had been negligent and breached its duty of care.

Expanding markets In the mid-1990s, tobacco companies began to focus on the vast markets in developing countries, such as China and countries in southeast Asia, where health education had not yet made an impact, and cigarettes were inexpensive.

smoking

Method of preserving fresh oily meats (such as pork and goose) or fish (such as herring and salmon). Before being smoked, the food is first salted or soaked in brine, then hung to dry. Meat is hot-smoked over a fast-burning wood fire, which is covered with sawdust, producing thick smoke and partly cooking the meat. Fish may be hot-smoked or cold-smoked over a slow-burning wood fire, which does not cook it. Modern refrigeration techniques mean that food does not need to be smoked to help it keep, so factory-smoked foods tend to be smoked just enough to give them a smoky flavour, with colours added to give them the appearance of traditionally smoked food.