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United Nations

Association of states for international peace, security, and cooperation, with its headquarters in New York City. The UN was established on 24 October 1945 by 51 states as a successor to the League of Nations. Its Charter, whose obligations member states agree to accept, sets out four purposes for the UN: to maintain international peace and security; to develop friendly relations among nations; to cooperate in solving international problems and in promoting respect for human rights; and to be a centre for the harmonizing the actions of nations. The UN has played a role in development assistance, disaster relief, cultural cooperation, aiding refugees, and peacekeeping. Its membership in 2007 stood at 192 states. It is funded from contributions from member states. Ban Ki-moon from South Korea became secretary general in 2006.

The UN system spends around £15 billion a year, taking into account the UN staff of over 50,000, the basic infrastructure (for which there is an annual budget of $1.9 billion), peacekeeping operations, and the programmes, funding, and operations of its specialized agencies (but excluding the World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), which provide billions more in development loans).

The UN has six principal institutions. Five are based in New York: the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, and the Secretariat. The sixth, the International Court of Justice, is located at the Peace Palace in the Hague, Netherlands. There are six official working languages: English, French, Russian, Spanish, Chinese, and Arabic. The name ‘United Nations’ was coined by US president Franklin D Roosevelt.

The former secretary general Kofi Annan and the UN itself were awarded the 2001 Nobel Prize for Peace.

Agencies

The UN operates many specialized agencies that work with the UN and each other through the coordinating machinery of the Economic and Social Council. They are involved either in promoting communication between states, for example, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU); or concerned with welfare of states, for example, the World Health Organization (WHO), the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (known as the World Bank). Much of the work of the specialized welfare agencies concerns developing countries and comprises fieldwork assistance and research. However, the agencies also provide international standards relevant to all countries. Though autonomous, the specialized agencies were created by intergovernmental agreement, and are related to the UN by special arrangements.

Peacekeeping

In its peacekeeping role, the UN has had mixed success. Of the 62 operations set up since 1948, two-thirds (44) were established after 1991; 47 operations have completed their mandates. At the start of 2007 there were 15 peacekeeping operations, involving 45,000 personnel. The UN's peacekeeping troops are loaned voluntarily by member states, who pay the troops at their own national rates, but are reimbursed by the UN at a flat rate of US$1,000 per soldier per month. The peacekeeping budget for 2005–06 was over $5 billion.

Funding

The UN has always suffered from a lack of adequate and independent forces and funds. In early 2006 member states owed the UN over US$3.2 billion for past and current assessments – US$2.9 billion for peacekeeping and US$0.3 billion for the regular UN budget.

Members contribute financially according to their resources, an apportionment being made by the General Assembly, with the addition of voluntary contributions from some governments to the funds of the UN. The regular contributions are determined by a country's capacity to pay, based on its gross national product (GNP) and adjustments for its levels of external debt and per capita income, which are reviewed every three years. More than three-quarters of the UN's regular budget is paid by the ten largest contributors: the USA (which pays 22%); Japan (20%); Germany (9%); the UK (6%); France (6%); Italy (5%); Canada (3%); Spain (2%); China (2%); and Mexico (2%). The 25 members of the European Union (EU) contribute together 38% of the budget.

Security The UN Charter was drawn up at a conference in San Francisco, California, in 1945, based on proposals drafted at a conference at Dumbarton Oaks, in Washington, DC, in 1944. It envisaged a UN world security system, with the Security Council preserving the wartime alliance of the USA, USSR, and Britain (with France and China also permanent members) in order to maintain the peace. This never became fully operational as a result of disagreements between the great powers during the Cold War period. Each permanent member of the Security Council can veto proposals, and this way Security Council action was blocked. No permanent UN force was established and so a central element in the security arrangements never came into being. The Security Council has used full enforcement action against states only three times in its history: in Korea in 1950, when it authorized military action to repel the invasion of the South by the North; in 1966, when it imposed selective mandatory sanctions on Rhodesia (made comprehensive in 1968); and in 1991, when it authorized a military response to Iraq's invasion of Kuwait.

In 1971 Taiwan, formerly a permanent member of the Security Council, was expelled from the UN on the admission of China. The Russian Federation took over the Soviet permanent seat on the Security Council in 1992.

The early UN consisted mainly of the members of the Western alliance, a Latin American group, and Commonwealth, Arab, and East European groups. The USA and its allies had a built-in majority, and General Assembly resolutions usually reflected the interests and ideals of the Western world. From the 1960s many new nations joined the UN, many of them ex-colonies from Africa and Asia. They brought traditions and aspirations that differed from the countries of Western Europe and North America. In 1960 the Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, which proclaimed the necessity of bringing colonialism to a speedy and unconditional end, in all its forms and manifestations; declared that the subjection of peoples to alien subjugation was contrary to the Charter and was an impediment to the promotion of world peace and cooperation; and insisted that all people had the right to self-determination. By the 1980s, Western nations often found themselves in a minority on resolutions on political and colonial matters, and on development and economic affairs that reflected the interests of the newer members. During the 1990s, the break-up of the USSR and the increasing recognition of independent states throughout the world resulted in a further increase in UN membership.

An International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), based in the Hague was established in 1993, to bring to justice perpetrators of war crimes in the conflict in former Yugoslavia (especially Bosnia-Herzegovina) since 1991. In 1998 a treaty was agreed to set up a permanent international criminal court to try individuals accused of war crimes, genocide, and crimes against humanity. The court formally came into being on 1 July 2002, after the threshold of 60 ratifications was reached, despite opposition by the USA.

Disarmament Article 2 of the UN Charter empowers the General Assembly to make recommendations to member states or to the Security Council on principles governing disarmament and the regulation of armaments, and under Article 26, the Security Council has the responsibility of formulating, with the assistance of the Military Staff Committee, plans for the establishment of a system for the regulation of armaments. Negotiations looked most promising immediately following the easing of the Cold War in 1961, when the USSR and the USA produced joint principles (the Zorin-McCloy principles) on general and complete disarmament and effective means for the peaceful settlement of disputes and the maintenance of peace. Negotiations broke down mainly over the question of international inspection and control of the disarmament process.

Since 1962 the emphasis in bilateral and multilateral discussion has been on arms control rather than on disarmament. Arms control treaties agreed are the Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963); the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space Treaty (1967); the Treaty of Tlateloclo (1967), making Latin America a nuclear free zone; the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968); the Antarctic Treaty (1969); the Seabed Arms Control Treaty (1971); the Biological Weapons Convention (1972); the Chemical Weapons Treaty (1992); and the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1996). In the 1970s, the main focus of attention was on the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) and in the 1980s and 1990s, the Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START), both conducted bilaterally between the USSR and the USA, and continued between Russia and the USA.

Peacekeeping activities The failure of international security as envisaged in the Charter has necessitated the development of other means of keeping the peace. While peace enforcement is hostile coercive action directed against a state with the intention of bringing it to heel, peacekeeping is non-coercive and has so far been carried out with the consent of a state and within its territory. It differs also from pacific settlement, since it is concerned not with the fundamental solution to a dispute but with keeping opposing sides apart or restoring law and order. In 1988 the UN Peacekeeping Forces were awarded a Nobel Prize for Peace.

One consequence of the deadlock in the Security Council during the Cold War period was an extension of the General Assembly's powers in maintaining international peace. In 1950, the Security Council sent several thousand troops, mostly US, to Korea to repel the Soviet-backed invasion of South Korea. Following this, the USA introduced the ‘Uniting for Peace’ procedure which determined that in cases in which the Council was unable to act because of disagreement among the permanent members, the General Assembly should be called into emergency session to consider the matter. It would then make appropriate recommendations to members, including, in the case of a breach of the peace or act of aggression, the use of armed force where necessary.

The UN's peacekeeping missions have involved more than 750,000 soldiers and civilian police, and resulted in 1,600 UN casualties. With the rise in demand for UN peacekeeping, particularly in the Balkans and Africa, the number of operations increased from 13 before 1988 to 41 between 1985 and 2001. The total deployment of UN military and civilian personnel peaked in 1993, at more than 80,000, drawn from 77 countries. This was the result of UN operations in Somalia and the former Yugoslavia. By 1999 numbers had fallen to 12,000, but have since increased in response to a review in 2000 that concluded there was a need for a larger force to act as a credible deterrent.

A feature of the 1990s was greatly increased troop contributions from developing countries. In 1991, only two of the top ten troop contributors were developing countries – Ghana and Nepal; in 2007, eight out of the top ten contributors were developing countries – Bangladesh, Ghana, India, Jordan, Nepal, Nigeria, and Pakistan, and South Africa.

There are two kinds of peacekeeping operation managed by the UN: observer forces, responsible for supervising ceasefire lines, the evacuation of troops, and the return of prisoners; and armed peacekeeping forces, used to separate opposing sides, patrol frontiers, or curtail military conflict and maintain order. Observer forces have been used in the Balkans, Indonesia, the Middle East, Korea, Kashmir, Lebanon, Yemen, Ethiopia, and Eritrea. Peacekeeping forces have operated in the Middle East, Cyprus, the Congo, Somalia, Angola, Rwanda, Haiti, Sierra Leone, and East Timor. These forces are very lightly armed and are usually permitted to use force only in self-defence. There is little they can do when faced with determined belligerents, but with some good will, they can prevent minor incidents escalating, lower tensions, and keep opposing sides away from each other. Recent UN missions have had a wider role, including helping to establish democratic political structures, training civilian police, monitoring human rights violations, mine clearance, electoral assistance, and helping to demobilize militias.

As secretary general 1982–91, Javier Pérez de Cuéllar was responsible for several successful peace initiatives, including the ending of the Iran–Iraq War and the withdrawal of South African and Cuban troops from Angola. The UN also responded promptly to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990, but was less successful, prior to the USA assuming a dominant role in the operation, in its efforts to establish a permanent peace in the former republics of Yugoslavia. In 1994 the UN used the threat of NATO air strikes to provide safe havens for refugees in Bosnia-Herzegovina, and in 1995 sanctioned US-led NATO air strikes against the Bosnian Serbs to pressure them into observing UN-negotiated peace terms. However, its 1992–95 mission in Somalia, where it attempted peacemaking, as opposed to peacekeeping, encountered problems and local criticisms, and was withdrawn after coming under attack from contending forces. In 1999, an independent report severely criticized Kofi Annan for failing to do more to stop the genocide in Rwanda in 1994.

Economic work Assistance to developing countries has become increasingly important in the UN over the past 25 years. Seventy percent of the UN's work is devoted to promoting higher standards of living, higher levels of employment, and economic and social progress. The UN Development Programme (UNDP), established in 1965, coordinates the work of specialized agencies and organizations concerned with development. It is the UN's largest provider of grants for sustainable development and works in 174 countries to promote technical cooperation and help eradicate poverty.

The UN set priorities and goals for economic and social development through a series of International Development Strategies. The goal set for the 1960s was an annual 5% increase of gross domestic product (GDP) in all developing countries by the end of the decade. The results were disappointing, partly as a result of the poor response from the developed countries, and partly because of mistaken development priorities. A coordination strategy was adopted in the 1970s. In the 1990s, priorities were set for four areas: poverty and hunger; human resources and institutional development; population; and the environment. In 1997 the secretary general set up the UN Development Group, comprising UN operational programmes and funds, to improve coordination.

The UN has also concerned itself with the trading problems of the developing countries. In 1964 the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) was established, based on a belief that fundamental changes in established trading patterns were needed to improve the economic position of developing countries. UNCTAD was to be a forum in which developed and developing countries were to discuss and agree on these changes.

The achievements of UNCTAD's first three sessions – in 1964, 1968, and 1972 – were not encouraging. In 1974, the General Assembly approved a Declaration on the Establishment of a New International Economic Order, which would give the developing countries control of their own resources, a better deal in world trade, and full participation in a reformed international monetary system. The Declaration was received with some hostility by the developed countries, but a more cooperative atmosphere prevailed at the next Assembly meeting on world development and international economic cooperation in 1975. Nevertheless, when UNCTAD met again in 1976, it failed to settle any of the developing countries' demands.

Human rights work On 10 December 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted and proclaimed a Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This Declaration has been built upon through more than 80 other conventions on human rights, including conventions on refugees, racial and sexual discrimination, children, and genocide. The UN High Commissioner on Human Rights (UNHCHR or UNCHR) coordinates all UN human rights activities and investigates abuses. It has 53 members (all UN member states), though some have poor human rights records. In May 2001, the Commission controversially expelled the USA, which had taken a firm line against human rights abuses in China.

The UN High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) assists people who have fled war, persecution, or human rights abuse. In 2000 there were more than 22 million people of concern to UNHCR, with its largest operations in western Asia (where there are 2.6 million Afghan refugees), the former Yugoslavia (with 1 million people in need), and the Great Lakes region of east Africa (with half a million refugees).

Humanitarian aid The UN Emergency Relief Coordinator coordinates the UN's response to humanitarian disasters, such as floods, droughts, earthquakes, and conflicts. Each year, the UN raises more than US$1 billion from international donors, and assists more than 20 million people. The UNHCR, UNICEF, UNDP, and the World Food Programme (WFP) all participate, along with non-governmental and intergovernmental humanitarian organizations, such as the Red Cross. UNICEF works for the long-term survival, protection, and development of children, focusing on immunization, primary health care, nutrition, and basic education. The WFP is the world's largest international food aid organization for both emergency relief and development, providing one third of the world's food aid.

Environmental issues The UN has become increasingly concerned with the impact of climate change (global warming) and issues such as deforestation and biodiversity. UN environmental conventions have helped reduce acid rain in Europe and North America, cut marine pollution, and phase out production of gases destroying the Earth's ozone layer. However, international agreement has proved difficult to secure. A series of UN summit conferences tried to secure international agreement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. At the 1997 UN conference held at Kyoto, Japan, it was agreed that emissions should be cut by 5.2% of 1990 levels by 2012. However, in 2001 US president George W Bush declared that the USA would not implement the Kyoto Protocol. With the USA responsible for a quarter of global carbon dioxide emissions, it is unlikely that Kyoto's targets will be met.

The UN Environment Programme (UNEP) works to encourage sound environmental practices. A UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) monitors and predicts changes in average global temperatures. A number of UN economic programmes promote sustainable development.

Health issues The UN has achieved much to improve health in developing countries. It has focused on health education, immunization programmes, and the provision of essential drugs. The World Health Organization (WHO) has eradicated smallpox, and eliminated polio from the Americas, Europe, China and Oceania. A joint WHO-UNICEF programme has immunized 80% of the world's children against killer diseases, saving the lives of 2 million children a year. The UN's Joint Programme on AIDS brought together six UN agencies and programmes to help combat the epidemic.

Principal institutions

The General Assembly Consisting of one member from each of the 189 member states, the General Assembly meets annually for a session usually lasting from late September to the end of the year; it can be summoned at any time for an emergency session. All members of the UN have equal status in the Assembly, each state having one vote. Important decisions, such as the condemnation of an act by one of its members, the UN budget, and admitting new members, are taken by a two-thirds majority. Other matters require a simple majority, though in recent years an effort has been made to reach decisions through consensus. The USA regularly (often alone or nearly so) votes against Assembly resolutions on aggression, international law, human-rights abuses, and disarmament.

The General Assembly was originally intended to be merely a deliberative body. Pressures from the smaller states at the time of its establishment ensured a larger role, although its decisions are only recommendations. It may discuss any subject and make recommendations to the Security Council or a member state. It aims to further political cooperation, legal development, economic and social cooperation, and the achievement of human rights. It elects the non-permanent members of the Security Council, and the members of the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, and, together with the Security Council, the International Court of Justice. It also supervises the activities of the Economic and Social Council and the Trusteeship Council, and controls UN finances, approving the budget and deciding what contributions member states should make.

The Security Council The most powerful body of the UN, the Security Council is responsible for maintaining international peace and security, and acts on behalf of UN member states in carrying out its duties. It has five permanent members – the USA, Russia, the UK, France, and China – plus ten rotating members (six until 1965), which serve for two years each. Decisions must be agreed by nine members (seven until 1965) including, except on procedural matters, the permanent members. Any permanent member can therefore veto a decision, although an abstention is not counted as a veto. The USA has exercised its veto on the Security Council more times than any other member (the UK is second, France a distant third).

Five of the ten temporary members are elected each year by the General Assembly for a two-year term. At any one time the ten rotating members must comprise five countries from Africa and Asia, two from Latin America, one from Eastern Europe, and two from Western Europe. The presidency of the Security Council is held for a month at a time. Member states undertake to accept and carry out its decisions. The Council can be called into session at any time, and a representative of each of its member states is present at all times at UN Headquarters.

Any UN member may be invited to participate in the Security Council's discussions (though not to vote) if they bear on its interests. The council may investigate disputes and make recommendations to the parties concerned, and may call on members to take economic or military measures (for example, economic sanctions or arms embargoes). Its role in maintaining international peace and security is set out in Chapters VI and VII of the Charter.

Chapter VI deals with the peaceful settlement of disputes likely to endanger international peace and security. If states fail to settle such disputes by negotiation, arbitration, or other peaceful means external to the UN, they are obliged to bring them to the attention of the Security Council. In practice they frequently fail to do this. The Security Council may also investigate any dispute or situation to determine if it is likely to endanger international peace. At any stage the Council may recommend appropriate measures, but it is not able, under this chapter, to force states to keep the peace. Experience in the Middle East and the former Yugoslavia suggests that the organization is only successful when firmly backed by the major powers, particularly the USA. Nevertheless, where disputants have recognized their need for third-party assistance in reaching solutions, the Security Council has achieved a considerable amount. Examples of successful intervention occurred in the dispute between Indonesia and the Netherlands 1947–49, in the Lebanon and Jordan crisis of 1958, and in the Congo crisis of the 1960s. In addition, the Security Council has frequently helped to ensure orderly transfers of power in colonial countries by organizing plebiscites and elections.

Chapter VII of the Charter, on action with respect to threats to the peace, breaches of the peace, and acts of aggression, was intended to provide a UN world security system. The Security Council's decisions under this Chapter are mandatory. Before making recommendations it can call upon the states concerned to comply with any provisional measures it determines are necessary or desirable. Subsequently, it may call on member states to impose economic, communication, and diplomatic sanctions on a recalcitrant state, and if these measures are deemed inadequate it may take military action. All member states are obliged to provide the Security Council with such military assistance as is deemed necessary and Article 47 of the Charter provides for the establishment of a Military Staff Committee made up of representatives of the five permanent members of the Security Council to coordinate and direct UN military operations. From the mid-1990s, the UN has proved most successful when it has used the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) as its military agent.

The Economic and Social Council This body guides and coordinates the General Assembly's economic programme. It consists of 54 members elected for three years, one-third retiring in rotation. Each member has one vote and decisions are by a simple majority. It usually meets twice a year, in New York City and Geneva, Switzerland. It initiates studies of economic, social, cultural, educational, and health matters, and calls for reports from the specialized agencies and other UN bodies, such as international experts on economics, transport and communications, human rights, and so on, as well as regional commissions and non-governmental agencies that have been granted consultative status. It may make recommendations to the General Assembly, or may also draft conventions for approval by the General Assembly.

The Trusteeship Council The Trusteeship Council was responsible for overseeing the administration of UN trust territories, chiefly former German and Japanese colonies in the Pacific region. Its members were China, France, Russia, the UK, and the USA. It met once a year, with special sessions if required. Its objectives were to promote the political, economic, social, and educational advancement of the inhabitants of the territories and their development towards self-government or independence. By 1949, 11 territories had been placed under the system. By 1994, all had become independent, and the council was put into a state of suspension, being effectively wound up.

The International Court of Justice The International Court of Justice is the main judicial organ of the UN. Membership is open to all states that are parties to its statute and to other states under certain conditions. Only states, not individuals, can be parties to cases before the court. There is no appeal. Decisions of the Court are binding, but states are not obliged to submit cases to it. They can, however, declare that they accept its jurisdiction as compulsory in certain types of case. The court gives advisory opinions at the request of UN bodies.

The court consists of 15 independent judges, elected by the Security Council and the General Assembly on the basis of their competence in international law and irrespective of their nationalities, except that no two judges can be nationals of the same state. They serve for nine years and may be immediately re-elected. The president and vice-president are elected by the court for three-year terms. Decisions are by majority vote of the judges present, and the president has a casting vote.

The Secretariat The Secretariat is headed by the secretary general, who has under- and assistant secretaries general and a large international staff of around 9,000 civil servants (drawn from 160 countries) with loyalties to the organization and the international community rather than to any government. The secretary general is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for a renewable five-year term. The Secretariat has duty stations at the UN headquarters in New York, as well as in UN offices in Geneva, Switzerland; Vienna, Austria; and Nairobi, Kenya.

Specialized agencies

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), established in 1945, headquarters in Rome, Italy; it seeks to improve agricultural productivity and food security, and to better the living standards of rural populations;

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), established in 1957, headquarters in Vienna, Austria; an autonomous intergovernmental organization that works for the safe and peaceful uses of atomic energy;

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), established in 1945, headquarters in Washington, DC; popularly known as the World Bank, it is a group of bodies that provide loans and technical assistance, mainly to developing countries, to reduce poverty and advance sustainable economic growth; it includes the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the International Development Association (IDA), the International Finance Corporation (IFC), the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID), and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA);

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), established in 1947, headquarters in Montréal, Canada; it establishes international standards for the safety, security, and efficiency of air transport, and promotes international cooperation in all areas of civil aviation and safety and efficiency, international facilities, and air law;

International Development Association (IDA), administered by the World Bank;

International Finance Corporation (IFC), established in 1956; affiliated to the World Bank, it encourages private enterprise in less industrialized countries;

International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), established in 1977, headquarters in Rome, Italy; it mobilizes funds to raise food production and nutrition levels among the poor in developing countries;

International Labour Organization (ILO), established in its current form in 1945 (although it actually pre-dates the UN), headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland; it formulates policies and programmes to improve working conditions and employment opportunities, and sets labour standards used by countries around the world;

International Maritime Organization (IMO), established in 1958, headquarters in London, England; seeks to improve international shipping procedures, raise standards in marine safety, and reduce marine pollution by ships;

International Monetary Fund (IMF), established in 1946, headquarters in Washington, DC; it promotes international monetary cooperation and financial stability, and provides a permanent forum for consultation, advice, and assistance on financial issues;

International Telecommunication Union (ITU), established in 1934, headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland; it promotes international cooperation to improve telecommunications of all kinds, coordinates usage and allocation of radio and TV frequencies, promotes safety measures, and conducts research;

United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS; also known as Habitat), established in 1978, headquarters in Nairobi, Kenya;

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), established in 1964, headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland;

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), established in 1965, headquarters in New York City; it promotes higher standards of living in the poorer nations and tries to remedy the economic imbalance between North and South; it has 48 members, 15 of them in advanced industrial countries and the rest in varying stages of industrialization;

Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator (UNDRO), established in 1972, headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland; it coordinates international relief;

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), established in 1972, headquarters in Nairobi, Kenya; it monitors the state of the environment and promotes environmentally-sound developments throughout the world;

United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), established in 1945, headquarters in Paris, France; it promotes education for all, cultural development, protection of the world's natural and cultural heritage, international cooperation in science, press freedom, and communication;

United Nations Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA), established in 1972 under the umbrella of UNDP, headquarters in New York City;

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), established in 1951, headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland; it was awarded a Nobel Prize for Peace in 1954 and 1981;

United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), established in 1966, headquarters in Vienna, Austria; it promotes industrial advancement of developing countries through technical assistance, advisory services, and training;

United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF), established in 1953, headquarters in New York City; it was awarded a Nobel Prize for Peace in 1965;

United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR), established in 1965, headquarters in New York City;

United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD), established in 1964, headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland;

Universal Postal Union (UPU), established in its current form in 1948 (although it actually pre-dates the UN), headquarters in Berne, Switzerland; it sets international regulations for postal services, provides technical assistance, and promotes cooperation in postal matters;

World Food Council (WFC), established in 1974, headquarters in Rome, Italy;

World Food Programme (WFP), established in 1963, headquarters in Rome, Italy; it promotes economic and social development through food aid and provides emergency relief, helping to feed 80 million people in around 80 countries each year;

World Health Organization (WHO), established in 1946, headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, with six regional offices; it coordinates health improvement programmes including work in the areas of immunization, health education, and provision of essential drugs;

World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), established in 1974, headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland; it promotes international protection of intellectual property and fosters cooperation on copyrights, trademarks, industrial designs, and patents;

World Meteorological Organization (WMO), established in 1951, headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland; it promotes scientific research on the Earth's atmosphere and climate change, and facilitates the global exchange of meteorological data;

World Trade Organization (WTO), established in 1995, headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland; it aims to reduce trade barriers, uphold an antidumping code, and assist the trade of developing countries.

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United Nations - events

24 December 1951	Libya	Libya (an Italian colony from 1911–42, and under British military administration since then) becomes an independent federation under King Idris I, previously emir of Cyrenaica, a region of eastern Libya. This follows a resolution of the United Nations (UN) General Assembly of 21 November 1949 that Libya should become independent, and makes Libya the first independent state to be created by the UN.
14 December 1955	world	Albania, Austria, Bulgaria, Cambodia, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), Finland, Hungary, Republic of Ireland, Italy, Jordan, Laos, Libya, Nepal, Portugal, Romania, and Spain are admitted to the United Nations (UN).
27 October 1966	South Africa, South West Africa	The United Nations (UN) Assembly ends South Africa's mandate over South West Africa because of its racial policies, but South Africa refuses to accept the decision.
1975	USA	The United Nations (UN) declares 1975 International Women's Year.
3–14 June 1992	Brazil	The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development is held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It is attended by delegates from 178 countries, most of whom sign binding conventions to combat global warming and to preserve biodiversity (the latter is not signed by the USA).
16 May 1993	Germany, Somalia	German troops are sent to Somalia as part of the United Nations (UN) peacekeeping force; this is the first time since their incorporation into NATO (the North Atlantic Treaty Organization) that they have served outside Europe.
28 February 1995	Somalia	United Nations (UN) troops withdraw from Somalia, having been unable to end its civil war.
26 January 1998	Iraq	US and British naval forces begin to assemble in the Gulf and to draw up plans for a bombing campaign against Iraq because Iraqi president Saddam Hussein continues to hinder the work of United Nations (UN) weapons inspectors.
5 May 2000	Sierra Leone	Revolutionary United Front rebels in Sierra Leone take UN peacekeepers hostage in their campaign against the government. They seize 208 Zambian peacekeepers, bringing the total number of UN hostages to 318.

1995 2003 Balkan conflicts (c. 1991–2000) collective security December 14

diplomacy International Civil Aviation Organization International Court of Justice International Finance Corporation International Fund for Agricultural Development

International Maritime Organization Korean War Korean War (1950–53) League of Nations Second Gulf War (2003)

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