Wales: history 1066 to 1485

Dolbadarn castle in Snowdonia, Wales, dates from the early 13th century and was probably built by Llewelyn I, Prince of Wales. Later in the century, Owain Goch was kept prisoner in the castle for 20 years, following his unsuccessful attempt to overturn his brother Llewelyn II. Set strategically on a knoll commanding the entrance to Llanberis Pass, the remains of the castle's main circular tower are almost 15 m/50 ft high.

For the history of Wales before 1066, see Wales: history to 1066 and medieval England and Wales.

In the post-Conquest period, the establishment of powerful Norman barons on the Welsh borders (later known as the Marcher Lords led to two centuries of struggle against Anglo-Norman aggression, ending in the final conquest of Wales in 1282 by Edward I. Under the Tudors, the Act of Union (1536) formally united Wales to England (see Wales: the Act of Union).

Early struggles with the Normans The Norman conquest of England (1066) had little immediate effect upon Wales. But it was not long before the Norman kings began to make encroachments, in particular placing on the Welsh borders a number of powerful barons who took advantage of the disorganized state of Wales to expand their territories. The next two centuries (roughly 1066-1282) form an epoch of continual struggle against Anglo-Norman aggression. In 1094 there was a brief Welsh revival, led by Cadwgan ap Bleddyn, who united the Welsh people against the Normans.

In the early 12th century Henry I of England made a determined effort to anglicize Wales, which he attacked simultaneously with three armies, reducing most of the Welsh princes to submission. A major figure during this period was Gruffydd ap Cynan, king of Gwynedd (1081-1137), who rebelled against English dominance; the Welsh princes recovered much of their lost ground during the civil wars of Stephen's reign.

During almost the whole of Stephen's reign, and a great part of that of Henry II, the dominant figure in Wales was Owen Gruffydd (Owen Gwynedd; reigned 1137-69), son of Gruffydd ap Cynan. Between his death and the ascendancy of Llewelyn the Great, Dafydd, Owen's son, tried to maintain supremacy over the chiefs of Gwynedd.

Rhys ap Griffith and Henry II In the last quarter of the 12th century, when Henry II was endeavouring to curb the power of the border barons and at the same time to subjugate the Welsh princes, the chief figure in Welsh history is not Dafydd I, Lord of Snowdon, but Rhys ap Griffith (1132-97), Lord of the Vale of Twyi and son of Griffith ap Rhys (died 1137).

Rhys ap Griffith had defied both Owen Gwynedd and Henry II, but when Henry invaded Wales in 1157 Rhys made common cause with Owen, and Henry's army had to retreat. It was the rise of a new power in Ireland in the time of Strongbow (Richard de Clare) that lessened the pressure on Rhys and thereby led to peace between him and the English king. It was indeed largely through the cooperation of Rhys ap Griffith, now his ally and vassal, that Henry succeeded in establishing some semblance of order in Wales, and he recognized this fact by making Rhys justiciar (or chief officer of the crown) of South Wales.

Meanwhile, before the end of the 12th century, the Welsh church had been merged completely into the English church and had thus lost all independence in internal affairs. An unsuccessful stand was made for independence in ecclesiastical matters by Giraldus Cambrensis.

Llewelyn the Great The most significant figure in medieval Welsh history was Llewelyn ap Iorwerth (Llewelyn I the Great), prince of Wales from around 1194 to 1240. In generalship he was the equal of Cadwalader, and in statesmanship equal to Owen Gwynedd. He was a powerful force on the side of the barons in their struggle with King John, and three clauses of Magna Carta declare his privileges and recognize the independence of the law administered by him.

At first Llewelyn encountered difficulties from the jealousies of members of his family, but he overcame most of these through his alliance with John, reinforcing his alliance by his marriage with Joan (or Joanna), an illegitimate daughter of the English king. Llewelyn was shrewd enough to realize that England was ultimately invincible, and at the end of his life he tried to secure for Wales the continuation of peace by placing the country in feudal dependence on the king of England, by a treaty made through the bishops of Chester and Hereford.

By this treaty Llewelyn gave away the semblance of Welsh independence while retaining the reality of it, but this involved the succession of Dafydd, his son by an English mother and the cousin of the king, and the disinheriting of Griffith, born of a Welsh mother. Griffith was able and forceful, whereas Dafydd was not, and the sympathies of many in Wales were with Griffith and with his policy of hostile independence of England. Llewelyn could not reconcile his sons, and retired to the Cistercian monastery at Aberconwy, where he died in 1240.

Edward I's conquest of Wales On Dafydd's death in 1246 there were four claimants to the Welsh crown: Owen and Llewelyn (Llewelyn II ap Gruffydd), the sons of Griffith; Ralph Mortimer, who had married Gladys, daughter of Llewelyn the Great, and who at his death left his estates and claim to his son, Roger; and Edward, the son of Henry III, later to become Edward I. A settlement was reached in 1267 when Henry and Llewelyn met at Montgomery, where they ratified a treaty that gave Wales peace under the recognized rule of Llewelyn.

On the death of Henry III in 1272 Llewelyn refused to take the oath of fealty or to do homage to Edward I, who at that time was absent on the crusades. After his return to England, Edward appeared with an army at Chester (1275). The following year Edward made great preparations for a war of annihilation against Llewelyn and in 1277 his army closed round Wales. Llewelyn realized the hopelessness of continuing the struggle and submitted to the humiliating terms of the Treaty of Rhuddlan (10 November 1277). He did homage to Edward at Westminster in 1278, but a few years later again led a revolt. Edward once again invaded Wales and overran the country. Finally, in 1282, Llewelyn was killed in a chance encounter.

From this date Wales ceased to have any separate political existence. The conquest of the country brought into the king's hands the government of the principality and of those chieftains in South Wales who had become Llewelyn's adherents. In all these lands government by princes was replaced by that of the king's officials. Llewelyn's principality became six shires: Anglesey (the former island of Mon), Caernarfon, Merioneth, Flint, Cardigan, and Carmarthen. New castles ringed the land. The young prince, the future Edward II, born at Caernarfon, was the new prince of Wales, and to him was given the honour of offering Llewelyn's coronet at the shrine of Edward the Confessor at Westminster.

The rising of Owen Glendower and its aftermath The period from 1350 to 1400 was one of disintegration, due mainly to the tyrannies and exactions of the great Marcher Lords (border barons). The most formidable rising in Wales against the new order and the tyranny of the border barons was the great national movement associated with the name of Owen Glendower (c. 1359-c. 1416). What began as a private quarrel developed into a widespread revolt, led by Glendower, which terrified all in authority at the time and left behind it a more enduring impression on Welsh legends than any other political or social movement.

In 1404 Glendower was supreme in Wales, holding his own parliament. His political ideals were an independent Wales, under prince and parliament, an independent church, with St David's as its metropolitan see, and the organization of the new learning through Welsh universities. All his political ideals vanished with his death, save a vague sense of nationality.

The principal results of these risings, and of the havoc wrought by the Wars of the Roses of the later 15th century, were the destruction of the feudal system, the prevalence of robbers, the appropriation by Englishmen of all positions of trust, the enactment of many severe and unjust laws against the Welsh, and the consequent growth of bitter racial feeling. The border barons continued to make unjust exactions, and the rights of citizenship were withheld from the Welsh people. Nevertheless, this period of oppression corresponds in time with the golden age of Welsh poetry (see Welsh literature).

For subsequent events in Wales until its political unification with England in 1536, see Wales: the Act of Union. For the history of England during this period, see England: history to 1485.