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Dublin

City and port on the east coast of Ireland, at the mouth of the River Liffey, facing the Irish Sea; capital of the Republic of Ireland, and county town of County Dublin; population (2002) 495,800 (city); 1,413,400 (Greater Dublin, including Dún Laoghaire). Around a quarter of the Republic's population lives in the Dublin conurbation, with a high density of young, professional workers. In the 1990s the city underwent a renaissance, with the restoration of many old city-centre buildings, notably in the Temple Bar area. Dublin is the site of one of the world's largest breweries (Guinness); other industries include information technology, financial services, textiles, pharmaceuticals, electrical goods, whiskey distilling, glass, food processing, and machine tools. Dublin is a major centre for culture and tourism, known particularly for its Georgian architecture and plethora of bars.

History

The earliest records of a settlement at Dublin date from AD 140. The city was captured and recaptured in the mid-9th century by Viking invaders; the ruler of Dublin and his Norse and Leinster allies were defeated by Brian Bóruma in 1014 at Clontarf, now a northern suburb of the city. Dublin was the centre of English rule from 1171 (exercised from Dublin Castle; 1220) until 1922. Dublin was the scene of the 1916 Easter Rising against British rule in Ireland.

Features

In the Georgian period many fine squares and wide streets were laid out. Important buildings from this period are the City Hall (1769–79; formerly the Royal Exchange); the Bank of Ireland (1729–85; the former parliament building); the Custom House (1791; burned during 1921 but later restored); Leinster House (1744–48, where the Dáil Éireann (House of Representatives) and the Seanad Éireann (the Senate) sit), the entrance to which separates the identical façades of the National Library and the National Museum; nearby are the Four Courts (designed in 1786 as the seat of the high court of justice); the National Gallery.

Other notable buildings are Dublin Castle (the tower of which dates to the early 13th century); the Hugh Lane Municipal Gallery of Modern Art; Collins Barracks (1701, now part of the National Museum of Ireland); and the Abbey (1966) and Gate (1928) theatres. There is a Roman Catholic pro-cathedral, St Mary's (1816); two Protestant cathedrals, St Patrick's (13th–14th centuries) and Christ Church (13th century with many later additions); and three universities: Trinity College (founded 1592), University College (founded 1851 as Catholic University of Ireland, now part of the National University of Ireland), and Dublin City University (founded 1989, formerly a technical college). Trinity College library contains the Book of Kells, a splendidly illuminated 8th-century gospel book associated with the monastery of Kells founded by St Columba in County Meath. Kilmainham Jail (1796), where nationalists such as Charles Stewart Parnell were imprisoned, is now a museum.

Transport Dublin is linked by rail to the major centres in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. Dublin is a terminus for ferries to Liverpool and the Isle of Man, Dun Laoghaire the terminus for ferries to Holyhead. The international airport is at Collinstown, 8 km/5 mi from the city centre. The Royal Canal originates in Dublin and joins the River Shannon, but is now disused. The Grand Canal also originates in Dublin; one branch joins the Shannon, and a second the River Barrow. It is now only used for leisure purposes. The port has over 7 km/4 mi of quays and is controlled by the Port and Docks Board, set up in 1868. A suburban rail system, the DART, runs from Bray in the south to Howth in the north, with a western spur to Maynooth.

City environs The built-up area of Dublin extends along Dublin Bay from above Howth in the north to below Dun Laoghaire in the south, a distance of about 23 km/14 mi. The city has a backdrop of hills (the Dublin Mountains), and many suburbs, including Sutton, Howth, Portmarnock, and Malahide to the north, and Blackrock, Dun Laoghaire, Dalkey, and Killiney to the south.

Over the years, Dublin has spread and incorporated some of its smaller neighbours. The townships of Glasnevin, Clontarf, and Drumcondra became part of the city in 1900, the urban districts of Rathmines and Pembroke in 1930, and the township of Howth in 1942. The city has grown as far north as the airport, and as far south as the foothills of the mountains. The population expansion has been accommodated mainly to the west of the present city, at Blanchardstown (north of the Liffey), and Clondalkin and Tallaght (south of the Liffey).

City tour The centre of the city is simple in plan. O'Connell Street (formerly Sackville Street), is the widest and most imposing thoroughfare; it runs from north to south, crossing the Liffey (which flows due east at this point) at O'Connell Bridge, and then joining Westmorland Street, which leads to College Green, the hub of the road system. College Green is dominated on one side by Trinity College and on the other by the Bank of Ireland, formerly the old Parliament House. To the west, Dame Street leads to Dublin Castle, the City Hall, and Christchurch. Between Dame Street and the Liffey is the restored area of Temple Bar, now a highly popular social venue. Due south is Grafton Street, leading to St Stephen's Green, while a turn east from the entrance to Grafton Street leads eventually to Merrion Square and the government buildings. Between Grafton Street and Merrion Square East, and parallel to both, are Dawson Street, in which is the Mansion House, the official residence of the Lord Mayor, and Kildare Street, in which are Leinster House, the National Library, and the National Museum. The Nelson Pillar, formerly Dublin's principal landmark, which stood in O'Connell Street, was damaged by a gelignite explosion in 1966, and was subsequently demolished. In 2003 the Dublin Spire – a 37 m/120 ft steel spike with a light on top – was erected on the site.

The centre for civic administration is the City Hall (1779), which is situated facing Parliament Street, on the short hill leading from Dublin Castle to St Patrick's Cathedral. There are also modern corporation offices on the south bank of the Liffey. Phoenix Park, formerly west of the city, and now enclosed by it, has an area of 713 ha/1,761 acres and a circumference of 11 km/7 mi. In it are the official residence of the president (Áras an Uachtaráin), the Papal Nunciature, Dublin Zoo, and the American Legation. The northern suburb of Glasnevin is known for the National Botanic Gardens (1795) and its cemetery, in which many famous Irish nationalists are buried (including Charles Stewart Parnell, Daniel O'Connell, Arthur Griffith, and Michael Collins).

New developments in the city Economic growth in the 1960s brought new building in the city and with it the demolition of numerous old buildings, including some of Dublin's Georgian architecture. In the 1970s an almost complete Viking settlement was uncovered at Wood Quay, which was eventually built over. By the 1990s, with an improvement in architectural standards and more wealth in the city, new precincts emerged; city shopping centres, such as the Powerscourt centre, the Stephen's Green centre, and the Jervis Centre were established. The main shopping street, Grafton Street, was pedestrianized, and there are plans to pedestrianize O'Connell Street. However, in cultural terms the most interesting development is the Temple Bar area, running between Dame Street and the Liffey. It includes the Irish Film Centre, a photography gallery, a print gallery, a photography archive, an innovative children's theatre and cultural centre called The Ark, the Temple Bar Music Centre, a multimedia centre, the Project Arts Centre, and a great variety of shops, restaurants, and pubs. At weekends an open-air wholefood market and occasional concerts are held in Temple Bar's Meeting House Square. The residential population has also increased, with developments of apartments over shops, and a new retail complex – Old City – has opened.

On the north quays of the Liffey a concert centre, the Point Depot, provides a venue for large concerts and has hosted the Eurovision Song Contest, while classical music is performed in the National Concert Hall, and elsewhere. Tours of the Jameson's Old Distillery and the Guinness Storehouse with its Gravity bar, in their old factories dating from 1780 and 1759, are popular tourist attractions north and south of the Liffey respectively. A Millennium Bridge was constructed in 2000 – Dublin's second pedestrian-only river crossing.

Architecture The Bank of Ireland, built between 1729 and 1739, is one of Dublin's most famous buildings, and the first great Palladian building in the city. The original architect was Edward Lovat Pearce, surveyor-general of Ireland, who died before the work was completed; the remaining work was supervised by Arthur Dobbs. A Corinthian portico on Westmoreland Street was added in 1785 by James Gandon. It was used as the Irish parliament building during the period of independence from 1782 until the Act of Union in 1800, and was subsequently acquired by the Bank of Ireland in 1803 for £40,000. Although structural alterations have been made since then, many of the old features and chambers have been retained.

City Hall, formerly the Royal Exchange, was built in 1769 by the London architect Thomas Cooley, who submitted the winning design for the building in an open competition. It is square in plan with the interior designed as a circle within the square. Twelve fluted columns support the finely lit dome, and the Adam-style plasterwork is by Charles Thorp, later lord mayor of Dublin. It houses sculpture by the Irish sculptor John Foley, and others, and a fine collection of civic regalia, including a sword belonging to King Henry IV.

The Custom House, probably Dublin's noblest large building, was built on the north quay between 1781 and 1789, and is the creation of James Gandon, considered by many as his masterpiece. It suffered badly during the lead-up to the Irish Civil War (1922–23) when it burned for five days following an IRA attack, and the only original interior surviving is in the North Hall. The building has been carefully restored and still retains much of the glory of the original conception. It now houses government offices.

Dublin Castle dates from 1204, when King John of England ordered that a castle should be built on the site; the original construction was completed about 1220. The largest surviving portion of the Norman building is the Record Tower, where ‘Red Hugh’ O'Donnell, a member of the influential O'Donnell family, was probably imprisoned in 1591. The castle was rebuilt in 1688 after a fire in 1684, and King James II spent one night in it after retreating from the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. St Patrick's Hall has an impressive ceiling of scenes from Irish history painted by Vincent Waldre in about 1790. The Chester Beatty Library in the Clock Tower, contains an excellent collection of medieval manuscripts, Babylonian clay tablets, and Egyptian and Greek papyri.

The Four Courts, a fine Neo-Classical building, once housed the courts of the Exchequer, Common Pleas, King's Bench, and Chancery; today it accommodates Ireland's High Court and Supreme Court. Construction began in 1786 using the designs of Thomas Cooley, who died before completion; the work was finished by James Gandon in 1802. In 1922, during the Irish Civil War, the interiors were badly damaged by fire and Gandon's work was lost, but the building has since been restored. Of a much greater loss was the destruction of many important historical documents in the Public Records Office, which occupied a nearby building.

Leinster House, a magnificent Georgian mansion built between 1744 and 1748 for the 20th Earl of Kildare, has been the meeting place of the Irish parliament since 1924. Designed by Richard Castle, it is said to have influenced the Irish architect James Hoban, who created the White House (1792–99), the official residence of the president of the USA in Washington DC. The house was rented by the Royal Dublin Society in 1815; they moved to Ballsbridge, just south of the city centre in 1924. The picture gallery, redesigned by James Wyatt in 1780, is now used as the Senate chamber, while the lecture theatre of 1897 houses the Dáil. With the National Museum and National Library the house forms three sides of an open square fronting on Kildare Street.

The Royal Hospital, built in the 1680s as a hospital for veteran soldiers, is a graceful Neo-Classical building designed by William Robinson for the Duke of Ormond. Its spacious Great Hall contains fine carved oak panelling and plasterwork, and is considered by many to be the finest interior in Dublin. The chapel has a magnificent ceiling and more superb woodwork. It was restored from 1980 by the Office of Public Works and since 1991 has housed the Museum of Modern Art.

The General Post Office, designed by Francis Johnstone (1760–1829), is a granite building with an Ionic portico of Portland stone. It was the headquarters of the Irish Volunteers during the Easter Rising of 1916, when it was shelled by a gunboat on the River Liffey and destroyed by fire. It has since been rebuilt, and its impressive main hall contains a memorial to the rebels of 1916 in the shape of a statue of Cuchulain (one of Ireland's legendary heroes), on the base of which is inscribed an excerpt from the Declaration of the Republic that was read by Patrick Pearse from the steps of the Post Office at the start of the Easter Rising.

The Roman Catholic pro-cathedral in Marlborough Street, adjacent to O'Connell Street, is in Graeco-Roman style, and has a portico of Doric columns. It was completed in 1825, some years before the granting of Catholic Emancipation, the chief protagonist of which, Daniel O'Connell, became Dublin's first Roman Catholic mayor in 1841.

St Patrick's Cathedral, the principal church of the Church of Ireland, is founded on the site of a wooden church built by Sitric, the first Christian king of the Norsemen in Dublin. Construction dates from about 1220 when the existing church was elevated to the status of a cathedral by Archbishop Henri de Londres. Building continued until 1254 in the Early English Gothic style, with the Lady Chapel being added about 1270. It is the largest of Ireland's medieval cathedrals and has had many renovations, the most extensive being in 1865 by Benjamin Lee Guinness. Jonathan Swift was dean of St Patrick's from 1713 to 1745 and is buried here. In 1901 a well was discovered which legend states is the holy well where St Patrick baptized converts in the 5th century.

St Audoen's Church, the only surviving medieval church in Dublin, dates to the late 12th century and was probably built by settlers from Bristol who had been granted Dublin by King Henry II. The tower dates from the 17th century with some restoration in the 19th century; it contains the oldest bells in Ireland, cast in 1423. There is a fine Norman font dated 1192 and in the porch is the ancient Lucky Stone, probably an early Christian gravestone, which is supposed to bring good luck when touched. St Audoen's is Dublin's oldest church in continuous use.

St Michan's Church, in Church Street, is a 17th-century building near the Four Courts. It is noted for its vaults, in whose dry atmosphere certain bodies have been preserved for centuries. One of the bodies is said to be that of a crusader.

Amongst notable 20th-century Dublin buildings are the Department of Industry and Commerce building in Kildare Street (built in 1942), and, almost in the shadow of the Custom House, the ‘Busarus’ or Central Bus Station (1953), and Liberty Hall (1962), headquarters of the Irish trade union movement. During the 1960s and the early 1970s, many office blocks were built, particularly in the southeast of the city. Most noteworthy of these are the Bank of Ireland in Baggot Street, the Central Bank in Dame Street, and the Department of Agriculture, in Kildare Street. In the 1990s Dublin became an important financial services centre and many new buildings were erected for this purpose on former dockland.

Cultural life Literature and the arts have flourished in Dublin: David Garrick and Sarah Siddons played at the Crow Street and Smock Alley theatres; the first performance of George Frederick Handel's oratorio Messiah was conducted by the composer in Fishamble Street in 1742; and the playwrights Oliver Goldsmith, George Farquhar, and William Congreve were students at Trinity College. Dublin is the birthplace of several notable writers: Richard Brinsley Sheridan was born in Dorset Street, Oscar Wilde in Merrion Square, Thomas Moore in Aungier Street, and George Bernard Shaw in Synge Street. Other famous literary Dubliners include William Butler Yeats, Charles Lever, Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu, Seán O'Casey, and James Joyce; the latter's modernist masterpiece Ulysses famously records the events of a single Dublin day. The satirist Jonathan Swift was also born in Dublin.

The Abbey Theatre, opened in 1904 (and which also houses the Peacock Theatre studio) has an international reputation. It was state-funded from 1924; Lady Gregory and Yeats were the first directors, and the Fay brothers, T C Murray, Seán O'Casey, Barry Fitzgerald, and F J McCormick have all been associated with the theatre. The Gate Theatre opened in 1928; Mícheál Mac Liammóir and Hilton Edwards have been associated with it, and Orson Welles made his acting debut here at the age of 16. The Feis Ceoil, an annual music festival in Dublin, has a strong reputation, and among those who won their earliest laurels at its competitions were John McCormack, a tenor popular at the turn of the 20th century, and Margaret Burke-Sheridan (1889–1958), an internationally famous soprano. The Royal Irish Academy of Music was founded in 1856.

Dublin's art treasures The National Gallery in Merrion Square, adjacent to Leinster House, has paintings by Fra Angelico, Michelangelo, Titian, El Greco, Rubens, Corregio, Tintoretto, Vermeer, Poussin, Van Dyck, Murillo, Gainsborough, and Goya, as well as works by modern Irish painters such as John Lavery, William Orpen, and Jack Butler Yeats. The Hugh Lane Municipal Gallery of Modern Art (formerly the Dublin Municipal Gallery), which occupies what was once the town house of Lord Charlemont in Parnell Square, was opened in 1907 and reconstructed in 1933. It owes much to the generosity of Sir Hugh Lane, who was lost on the Lusitania in 1915, and who, in an unwitnessed addition to his will, left to the Dublin Municipal Gallery his collection of 39 continental paintings then on loan to London's National Gallery. Much controversy has raged over these pictures. A compromise was reached in 1959 when a selection of them was returned to Dublin, which now hangs in a special room in the Hugh Lane Gallery. The gallery has a notable Corot collection and works by Rodin. In 1991 the Irish Museum of Modern Art (IMMA) was established in the buildings of the Royal Hospital, Kilmainham. Comprised of several galleries, it has its own collection and hosts visiting exhibitions of modern art every three to four months.

The National Library, in Kildare Street, was founded in 1877 with a collection donated by the Royal Dublin Society. It has over half a million books, important manuscripts, and map collections. Facing it is the National Museum, which has a splendid collection of antiquities, including the 8th-century Tara Brooch and Ardagh Chalice, found in Limerick in 1868, and the Cross of Cong, a beautiful crucifix in wood, bronze and silver. A new addition to the National Museum of Ireland, the museum of decorative arts and its economic, social, political, and military history, opened in 1997 at Collins Barracks. The Natural History Museum on Merrion Street, which first opened in 1857, is described as one of the world's finest and fullest collections in the old cabinet style. Trinity College Library is a copyright library. Among its ancient manuscripts is the incomparable Book of Kells, a superb example of the beautifully ornamented script of the early Irish monks. It also houses ‘Brian Boru's Harp’, a musical instrument named after the Irish high king Brian Bóruma, although the harp actually dates from about 500 years after his death in 1014; the harp appears on the presidential flag of the Republic of Ireland. The Royal Irish Academy, founded in 1785 and sited in Dawson Street since 1851, has the best collection of old Irish manuscripts in the country, while Marsh's Library, founded in 1707 by Archbishop Marsh near St Patrick's Cathedral, is the oldest public library in Ireland.

Education There are three universities in Dublin. Trinity College was founded in 1592 by Queen Elizabeth I on the site of the confiscated monastery of All Hallows. The earliest of its surviving buildings dates from 1722. For a long time it was strongly Protestant in bias. University College evolved from the Catholic University of Ireland, whose first rector was Cardinal Henry Newman. At first denied recognition in Britain, it was granted university status in 1853. It is now part of the National University of Ireland, established in 1909. Its arts and science faculties are now situated on a suburban campus (of 121 ha/300 acres) at Belfield, 5 km/3 mi southeast of the city centre, and 4 km/2.5 mi from the original site of the Catholic University in Earlsfort Terrace, part of which now houses the National Concert Hall. Dublin City University is in the suburb of Glasnevin.

Sport Three shows are held annually in the grounds of the Royal Dublin Society at Ballsbridge, the best known being the horse show, held in August, which features horse sales and international jumping competitions. There are race meetings at Leopardstown and the Phoenix Park. International rugby matches are played at Lansdowne Road, and football (soccer) matches at Lansdowne Road and Dalymount Park. The Gaelic Athletic Association (including Gaelic football and hurling) has its headquarters at Croke Park (which was the scene of a notoriously brutal act of reprisal by the Black and Tans during the Anglo-Irish War (1919–21). In the suburb of Portmarnock there is a championship golf course. At Tymon Park, on the outskirts of Dublin, there is a national basketball arena.

From foundation to the Act of Union Dublin is an ancient city, and has been identified by some with the city of Eblana mentioned by the Graeco-Egyptian geographer and astronomer Ptolemy (AD 140). St Patrick is said to have visited Dublin in 448 and to have converted many of its pagan inhabitants, but the Norsemen are regarded as its real founders. The Norsemen began marauding raids towards the end of the 8th century, and Dublin was one of their first permanent settlements in Ireland. Olaf the White captured Dublin in 852. The Norse influence rose and fell for 150 years, but was finally broken in 1014 at the battle of Clontarf, when King Brian Bóruma defeated the Norsemen, who had gathered from the Orkneys and elsewhere for a trial of strength. However, Dublin remained very largely a Norse city, and in 1170 it had an Irish archbishop, St Laurence O'Toole, but a Norse governor, Asculf.

The city was captured in 1169 by the Normans, who had come to Ireland as the allies of Dermot McMurrough, a king of Leinster who had been banished. The infant city was then on the south side of the River Liffey, and some of the dispossessed Norsemen founded a small settlement called Oxmanstown on the north bank of the river. Dublin began to grow. King Henry II of England came to Dublin in 1171 to curb his own barons and receive the homage of some of the Irish chiefs. He wintered in a temporary palace built, the old chronicles say, ‘of peeled osiers’, entertained lavishly, gave Dublin the first of its 102 royal charters (the last was given in 1727), granted the city as a colony to the people of Bristol, and appointed Hugh de Lacy to govern it in his name.

The Normans built Christchurch Cathedral, and in 1190 John Comyn, the first Norman archbishop, began a second cathedral, St Patrick's, just outside the city walls. The population of Dublin was then less than 10,000 (it was 64,000 in 1688, 168,000 in 1798, and reached half a million early in the 20th century). Dublin Castle was completed in 1220. At this time, and for centuries after, Dublin was the chief fortress of ‘the Pale’, a narrow coastal strip stretching along the coast roughly from Dundalk to the Wicklow Mountains, and inland for 32 km/51 mi, over which the English had control. Neighbouring chiefs carried off its cattle at intervals, or exacted ‘Black Rent’ for leaving them in peace. Richard II landed at Waterford with an army of 34,000 men to punish one of these chiefs, but the Irish guerrillas harried the English all through Wicklow, and after a breathing space in Dublin, Richard sailed home again in 1394.

The Reformation reached Ireland in 1535, when a Protestant, Dr Brown, became archbishop of Dublin, and the Dublin parliament passed the Act of Supremacy in 1536. The new doctrines made little headway in the rest of the country, but were enforced with some rigour in the city. James II was welcomed in Dublin in 1689 by Irish Catholics, who felt their time had come, but he left the country hurriedly after his defeat at the Battle of the Boyne (1690), leaving the Irish and the French to fight his battles. Soon afterwards the victorious William of Orange visited Dublin, and presented a chain of office to the lord mayor.

Dublin grew considerably during the Restoration, but the 18th century was the time of its greatest development and elegance. The Georgian part of the city was laid out, and the aristocracy became patrons of art and literature. The Royal Dublin Society was founded by 1731 to encourage trade and culture, and its achievements justified in time the verdict of Lord Chesterfield: ‘It did more good to Ireland with regard to Art and Industry than all the laws that could have been framed.’ The Irish parliament, which had been subservient to the British Parliament, became fully independent in 1782, mainly because of pressure by the Volunteers, an armed force raised originally to protect Ireland from possible French invasion during the American Revolution. The Chamber of Commerce was established in 1782, and trade flourished. Dublin prospered and grew until the passing of the Act of Union (1801) and the end of the Irish parliament.

Dublin

County in the Republic of Ireland, in Leinster province, facing the Irish Sea and bounded by the counties of Meath, Kildare, and Wicklow; county town Dublin; area 920 sq km/355 sq mi; population (2002) 1,122,800. The county is mostly level and low-lying, but rises in the south to 753 m/2,471 ft in Kippure, part of the Wicklow Mountains. The River Liffey enters Dublin Bay. The county is dominated by Ireland's capital city of Dublin and its suburbs, but also contains pastoral and agricultural land. Dún Laoghaire is the other major town and large port.

The coastline, stretching from 5 km/3 mi north of Balbriggan nearly as far as Bray, has many sandy beaches. The Liffey plain has the lowest rainfall in Ireland. At the foot of the Wicklow Mountains is Glenasmole, ‘the Glen of the Thrushes’, a beauty spot famous in the legend of Oisín and St Patrick, and site of the scenic Bohernabreena reservoirs.

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Town and administrative headquarters of Laurens County, central Georgia; population (2000) 15,900. It is situated on the Oconee River, 76 km/47 mi east-southeast of Macon. Incorporated in 1812, it was a major river shipping centre before railroads took its business away in the mid 19th century. Lumber and textile mills have since been the city's economic mainstay.

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