church, medieval

In the Middle Ages (5th–15th centuries) the concept of ‘Christendom’ was the only unifying force of a Europe split into thousands of tiny kingdoms and duchies. The Roman Catholic Church was consequently the most powerful authority in Western Europe. The head of the Roman Catholic Church, the pope, was the supreme spiritual leader of Christendom. Below the pope in rank were the cardinals, archbishops, and bishops who collaborated in the government of the church. The priesthood was celibate (did not marry or have sexual relations), and there was a strong emphasis on the monastic orders and missionary work.

The pope's jurisdiction was seen as infallible and he claimed to be superior to any temporal (earthly) power, including monarchs and emperors. When Pope Gregory VII clashed with the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV of Germany in 1076 during the investiture contest (a conflict over the right to make church appointments), Henry was eventually forced, in 1077, to walk over the Alps in the snow and wait for three days outside the gates of the pope's palace at Canossa to beg forgiveness. Henry II of England had to suffer a similar humiliating penance after he tried to extend royal power over ecclesiastical courts in the Constitutions of Clarendon (1164), eventually instigating the murder of Thomas à Becket, the archbishop of Canterbury.

The power of the church stemmed from its power to grant, or withhold, salvation from people who believed in the existence of heaven and hell as physical places. Rich people left land and money to the church, which became very wealthy. As major landowners under the feudal system, bishops and abbots were tenants-in-chief, and sometimes led armies into battle for the crown. As clerics were often the only literate people, they were also invaluable as government officials, and often became the crown's ministers and advisers.

At the local level, the parish priest dominated the village. He performed the service of the Mass, or Eucharist (the transubstantiation of bread and water into the body and blood of Jesus), which was the focus of Catholic liturgical life. He ‘churched’ (said the thanksgiving service for) women who had given birth, baptized babies, performed marriages, heard confession, gave the last rites to the dying, and buried the dead. Services were always said entirely in Latin. As well as a personal adviser and spiritual leader, the priest was the local landholder of church glebe land belonging to his office.

The parish church was the meeting place of the villagers, and the centre of the village life. Attendance was obligatory on Sundays and on Feasts of Obligation such as Christmas and Easter. Church festivals and saints' days were the only holidays (‘holy’ days) and were often marked by processions, fairs, and mystery plays, which formed the main entertainments of the village year. Monasteries were the almshouses, infirmaries, and schools for local people, and served as ‘hospitals’ (hotels) for travellers. Monastic life had strict rules, varying according to the religious order.

During the Middle Ages, the power of the church declined. The Great Schism (1378–1417), during which rival popes had seats at Rome and Avignon, undermined the authority of the papacy. Some clerics broke their vows of chastity and poverty and neglected their churches. There was growing anger at the payment of tithes. Writings such as ‘Pierce the Plowman's Crede’ (c. 1394) attacked the corruption in the church.

Towards the end of the Middle Ages, movements grew up challenging the teachings of the church, such as the Eucharist and the special place of the Virgin Mary, who, unlike other human beings, was said to be born without earthly sin. Opposition in the 15th century came notably from the Hussites in Germany, and the Lollards, followers of John Wycliffe, in England. The church called such opposition heresy. Heretics could be excommunicated and, in extreme cases, burned at the stake. Dissatisfaction led to the Reformation in 16th-century Europe, an attempt to reform the Catholic Church that led to the establishment of the Protestant churches.