emancipation of women

In Britain, the changing social, economic, and political role of women in the 19th and 20th centuries. The inequalities of Britain's traditionally male-dominated society were first voiced by the English feminist Mary Wollstonecraft in the late 18th-century. Great advances in women's rights were made over the subsequent centuries by the women's movement, as women gained new legal rights, particularly within marriage; women's suffrage (the right to vote); and legislation against discrimination in the workplace and sexual harassment. However, by the end of the 20th century sexism still persisted in many areas of society, and the equal representation of men and women had still not been achieved, particularly at levels of seniority in certain professions.

Emancipation in the 19th century In 1792 Mary Wollstonecraft, a pioneering feminist, published A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. In it she argued for equality of educational opportunities, which she believed would encourage radical social change and economic independence for women. Her ideas were taken up and progressed by members of the women's movement in the 19th century.

Women in 19th-century Britain faced numerous legal and social handicaps. Under English law, a married woman had no legal rights or existence separate from her husband. The jurist William Blackstone, writing in his Commentaries on the Laws of England (1765-70) stated: ‘By marriage... the very being or legal existence of the woman is suspended.’ Married women could not own property, and all their income was the property of their husbands. Women did not even have any rights over their children.

The celebrated case of the writer Caroline Norton illustrates the problems faced by women in the 19th century. In 1836 Norton was falsely accused by her husband of having an adulterous affair with the prime minister Lord Melbourne. Under the existing law Norton's husband was able to take custody of their three children, as well as control of the substantial earnings from her writings. Norton used her political and legal connections, and campaigned with like-minded individuals to overturn the laws, resulting in the Infant Custody Act (1839) and the Matrimonial Causes Act (1857), which set up the Divorce Court and allowed limited grounds for divorce. The Married Women's Property Acts of 1870 and 1882 gave married women basic legal rights over their property and earnings.

However, many social and economic inequalities remained. For instance, it was not a crime for a husband to beat his wife, or to rape her - as a wife was legally joined to the husband, she could not refuse any of his requests. Women were also barred from certain professions; for example, women were unable to qualify as doctors until 1865. Women were also disenfranchised throughout the period.

Emancipation in the 20th century The 20th century saw the most fundamental advances in the cause of women's emancipation. One of the most important achievements was women's suffrage, which gave women a voice in Parliament. The campaigns of the suffragists and militant suffragettes, and the work of women behind the lines and on the home front during World War I (see home front, World War I), were rewarded by limited suffrage for women in 1919 and equal suffrage in 1928.

The status of women rose again during World War II, when once more women took a significant part in the war effort (see home front, World War II). Since 1945, although initially slow, many laws have opened up equal opportunities for women, as well as giving women fully equal status in law. The work of the feminist movement, inspired by writers such as Germaine Greer, has led to ever further advances in the field of sexual equality. By the end of the 20th century, it was illegal for any employer or organization to take any action that may lead to discrimination against women, even if it is not intended. The 1975 Sex Discrimination Act, made it illegal to refuse to employ a person for any job based on their gender. In 1979 Margaret Thatcher was the first women to become prime minister of the UK.

Despite the legal and social changes, however, women still remain in an inferior position to men in many areas. Men still dominate the senior ranks of most of the professions, such as the legal and medical profession, and the police force, as well as the top management posts in the business community. Women also continue to form the majority in most low-paid employment.