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Any of several large game birds of the pheasant family, Meleagrididae, order Galliformes, native to the Americas. The wild turkey Meleagris galloparvo reaches a length of 1.3 m/4.3 ft, and is native to North and Central American woodlands. The domesticated turkey derives from the wild species. Turkeys in the wild lay a single clutch of 12 eggs every spring, whereas domestic turkeys lay 120 over 27 weeks. Wild turkeys weigh up to 10 kg/22 lb; domestic turkeys up to 30 kg/66 lb. The ocellated turkey Agriocharis ocellata is found in Central America; it has eyespots on the tail.
The domesticated turkey was introduced to Europe in the 16th century. Since World War II, it has been intensively bred, in the same way as the chicken. It is gregarious, except at breeding time.
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Country between the Black Sea to the north and the Mediterranean Sea to the south, bounded to the east by Armenia, Georgia, and Iran, to the southeast by Iraq and Syria, to the west by Greece and the Aegean Sea, and to the northwest by Bulgaria.
Government
Turkey is a unitary centralized state. It has a multiparty political system, with a dual prime ministerial and presidential political executive. The constitution of 1982 provides for a single-chamber legislature, the 550-member Grand National Assembly, elected by a party-list system of proportional representation in 85 electoral districts for a five-year term. To gain representation, a party must win at least 10% of the national vote. The assembly elects the president, to serve as head of state, for a seven-year term. The president appoints a prime minister who is able to command a majority in the assembly. The prime minister works with the president in a somewhat diluted version of the French ‘dual executive’. The president is obliged to work in conjunction with the prime minister.HistoryFor coverage of Turkish history prior to the establishment of the republic, see Turkey: history to 1923. |
The establishment of the republic
In July 1922 Rauf Bey, who with Kemal Atatürk had been mainly instrumental in launching the Nationalist revolution, became prime minister. On 1 November 1922 the sultanate was abolished. The National Assembly then elected the cousin of the deposed sultan, Abdul Mejid Effendi, to be caliph, the ‘Commander of the Faithful’, but with no secular powers. This ‘spiritual’ caliphate was finally abolished in 1924, and the Muslim religion was disestablished in 1928. Meanwhile, on 2 October 1923, the foreign occupation of Constantinople (now Istanbul) terminated, and on 29 October Turkey was declared a republic with Atatürk as president.The republic took the form of a powerful oligarchy led by a dictator and depending on press censorship. The westernization of Turkey was forcibly and rigorously carried through, and a new legal code introduced. Once the work of westernizing Turkey was more or less completed, Atatürk, now known as the ‘Ghazi’ (conqueror), relaxed his methods of dictatorial reform, although his position always remained unassailable. In the new economic system the state reserved the right to plan the general economic course and, while allowing private enterprise, owned the leading industries and supervised and coordinated the activities of private concerns.
Atatürk's foreign relations
Atatürk largely restricted the new Turkish state to the area actually inhabited by Turks, although it also included some of the Kurdish lands in the east. The Kurdish rebellion in 1925 aggravated the question of the Turkish–Iraqi boundary in the area of Mosul. Eventually, on 6 June 1926, almost the whole area was given by treaty to Iraq. Relations with Iran were also stabilized.In 1934 Turkey joined in a regional pact with Greece, Yugoslavia, and Romania, each country guaranteeing each other's frontiers, and in the same year, by the Pact of Saadabad, Turkey strengthened its political cooperation with Iraq, Iran, and Afghanistan. Following the restoration of Turkish sovereignty over the Dardanelles in 1936 and the cession of Alexandretta (now Iskenderun) by Syria to Turkey in 1939, Turkish relations with the Western democracies became closer. An Anglo-French guarantee against aggression was given to Turkey in May 1939, and this was followed on 19 October by an Anglo-French–Turkish pact of assistance, effective for 15 years.
Turkey in World War II
Atatürk's death in 1938 was a major shock to the republic. But the regime of his Republican People's Party, now under President Ismet Inönü, was sufficiently sturdy to survive.In World War II Turkey's position became difficult following the German successes in the Balkans in 1941, and Turkey found a semicircle of Axis forces round its western borders. Turkey came under great pressure from Germany, and in June 1941 the Turkish government had little option but to sign a ‘Treaty of Friendship’ with Germany. However, the situation changed with the victories won by the Allies in 1942–43 at El Alamein and Stalingrad, and eventually, in February 1945, the Turkish parliament decided to declare war on Germany and Japan.
Turkey joins the Western alliance
In 1945 the USSR denounced the treaty of friendship that it had made with Turkey in 1925, and in the following year made a demand for a revision of the 1936 Montreux convention by which Turkey had gained the right to remilitarize the Straits between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. This marked the end of a distinct phase in Turkish–Soviet relations: following the revolutions in both countries friendly relations had been established in the 1920s, accompanied by economic cooperation, but after World War II this gave way once more to the traditional grouping of Turkey in the Western European sphere of influence.The USA recognized the important position that Turkey held as a barrier against the spread of communism into the Middle East and Asia, and made substantial loans in order that Turkey could utilize to the full its economic resources and strengthen its defences. In 1950 Turkey dispatched troops to form part of the US-led UN forces in the Korean War, and in 1952 it became a member of NATO.
In 1953 Turkey signed a treaty of friendship with Greece and Yugoslavia (the latter having split from the Soviet bloc). Turkey's treaty in 1954 with Pakistan was the foundation stone of the subsequent Baghdad Pact (1955), which later became the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO). During the Suez Crisis of 1957 Turkey remained on good terms with both Britain and France.
The Menderes era, 1950–60
Until 1945 the Republican People's Party tolerated virtually no opposition parties; but after that date genuine opposition parties were allowed to be formed and greater democratic liberties permitted. In Turkey's first free elections in 1950 the leading opposition party, the Democratic Party, gained power under Celal Bayar and Adnan Menderes. Bayar became president, and Menderes prime minister. In the elections of 1954 the Democratic Party virtually obliterated all the other opposition parties. Turkey's foreign policy, based on cooperation with Western Europe, remained unchanged, but as time passed the Menderes regime appeared increasingly reactionary and intolerant in home affairs, particularly towards other parties.From 1953 onwards Greek–Turkish relations suffered a steady deterioration, owing to their very different approaches to the Cyprus question. Relations reached a low point in 1955, when serious anti-Greek rioting broke out in Turkey, causing substantial damage and loss of life. The 1959 London and Zürich agreements between Greece, Turkey, and Britain, which set up an independent Cyprus with guarantees for the Turkish minority there, led to a marked improvement in Greek–Turkish relations for a time.
In 1957 the Democratic Party was again returned to power, but with a reduced majority. Discontent was, however, growing among the army and the intellectuals, who saw Atatürk's Turkey threatened by Menderes's economic incompetence, corruption, authoritarianism, and increasing partiality to Islam. In May 1960 the Menderes regime was overthrown in an army coup led by Gen Cemal Gürsel. Menderes, President Bayar, and others were tried for treason; Menderes was executed, but Bayar's sentence was commuted to imprisonment.
Inönü returns to power, 1961–65
Parliamentary government was reestablished during 1961, and elections were held in October. Gursel became president, and former president Ismet Inönü, of Atatürk's Republican People's Party, became premier. The main opposition group, the Justice Party, adopted many of the policies formerly held by the proscribed Democratic Party.Inönü's government worked for friendlier relations with the USSR, while retaining Turkey's Western alliances. This policy was partially influenced by Turkish suspicions that Britain and the USA were pro-Greek in their attitude to the Cyprus question, which flared up again in December 1963, when Archbishop Makarios, the Cypriot president, declared Cyprus's intention of repealing the London and Zürich agreements unilaterally. For a time the whole NATO structure in the Mediterranean was threatened by Greek–Turkish hostility, and Turkish aircraft raided Cyprus in a defensive action to protect the Turkish Cypriots there. With the acceptance by Turkey and Greece of United Nations intervention and mediation in Cyprus, an uneasy lull followed.
Many Turks considered that their government had been too compliant over Cyprus, and this increased the difficulties of Inönü's coalition government. Between 1961 and 1965, through successive coalitions, Inönü had just succeeded in keeping the political system in being, staving off two coup attempts in 1962 and 1963, but in 1965 Inönü resigned.
Demirel and the return of military rule, 1965–73
Elections were held in October 1965, and the right-wing Justice Party won an absolute majority over all other parties. Its leader, Süleyman Demirel, became premier. In March 1966 Gen Sunay was elected president in succession to Gursel, who had become incurably ill. The Justice Party experienced increasing difficulties with its allies at home in parliament and, in the case of the USA, abroad. A further crisis in 1967–68 over Cyprus almost led to war with Greece.From 1968 clashes between political extremists and with the army became more violent. In 1969 the Justice Party was returned in the election, but, because the party split, it had a reduced majority. Prompted by strikes and student unrest, the army forced Demirel to resign in March 1971, and for the next two years the country was under military rule again. During this period Turkey's reputation suffered because of the curtailment of civil liberties, and a war was fought against urban guerrillas.
The invasion of Cyprus and its aftermath, 1974–76
After the lifting of martial law, elections were permitted in October 1973, and the Republican People's Party (RPP) under Bulent Ecevit, who had opposed military domination, won a slim, but not overall, majority. He succeeded in forming a coalition, which lasted between January and September 1974.Ecevit's reputation was greatly enhanced at home as a result of the invasion and occupation of northern Cyprus in July 1974 to protect the Turkish-Cypriot community, following the coup against Makarios by Greek Cypriots in favour of union with Greece. The Turkish invasion resulted in the effective partition of the island.
Ecevit resigned because of difficulties in his coalition in September 1974, largely due to his refusal to annex northern Cyprus. Only in March 1975 did Demirel succeed in forming another coalition government. This polarization in politics resulted in a new growth of disorders beween left- and right-wing forces on the university campuses, and an inability of the government to cope with Turkey's economic problems.
Relations were inevitably strained with Greece, over the sovereignty of the Aegean islands as well as over Cyprus, and inertia over the search for a solution in Cyprus led to a crisis with the USA. An embargo was imposed on arms supplies for a time, and Turkey retaliated with closer control over US bases. The Soviet prime minister paid a successful visit in December 1975. However, with instability and political deadlock dominating the domestic front, the renewed intervention of the armed forces seemed a possibility. Following an embargo on arms by the USA and the closure of the US defence installations in 1975, a new defence agreement was signed in March 1976. In July and August of that year military confrontation arose between Greece and Turkey as a result of Turkish explorations for oil in areas of the Aegean Sea to which Greece laid claim. With rejection by the International Court of Justice of Greece's request for an injunction on further Turkish prospecting the crisis passed.
Political instability and military rule, 1977–83
At elections held in June 1977, the RPP won 221 seats in the national assembly, but Ecevit was unable to form a government. In July 1977 Demirel became prime minister, heading a coalition of his Justice Party, the National Salvation Party, and the Nationalist Action Party. Demirel precariously held on to power until 1978, when Ecevit returned, leading another coalition. He was faced with a deteriorating economy and outbreaks of sectional violence, and by 1979 had lost his working majority and resigned.Demirel returned in November 1979, but the violence continued, and in September l980 the army stepped in and set up a national security council, with Bulent Ulusu as prime minister. Martial law was imposed, political activity suspended, and a harsh regime established.
Democracy restored, 1983–91
Strong international pressure was put on Turkey to return to a more democratic system of government, and in May 1983 political parties were allowed to operate again. The old parties reformed under new names and in November three of them contested the Assembly elections: the conservative Motherland Party (ANAP), the Nationalist Democracy Party (MDP), and the Populist Party (SDPP). The ANAP won a large majority and its leader, Turgut Özal, became prime minister. Özal and the ANAP retained their majority in the 1987 election. In 1989 Özal was elected president, with Yildirim Akbulut as prime minister. In 1991 Mesut Yilmaz replaced Akbulut as head of the ANAP and became prime minister.By 1987 Turkey was making overtures to join the European Community (EC; the predecessor of the European Union or EU). Long criticized for its violations of human rights, Turkey was told in late 1989 that its EC membership application had been refused and would not be considered again until at least the mid-1990s. During the 1990–91 Gulf War, Turkey supported the US-led forces, allowing use of vital bases in the country.
The Kurdish conflict
Ethnic Kurds had long suffered discrimination in Turkey, and from 1984 there had been guerrilla fighting in Kurdistan, and a separatist Workers' Party of Kurdistan (PKK) was active. From the early 1990s Kurdish separatist activity escalated within Turkey and in Europe, where Turkish businesses were targeted in several leading cities. In March and July 1995 and April 1996 the Turkish army launched major offensives into northern Iraq in an effort to eliminate PKK bases there. By the end of 1995 the numbers killed in the hostilities since 1984 exceeded 19,000 and there was international condemnation of Turkey's actions.Popular support for the PKK appeared to be decreasing inside Turkey; but it had an effective financial base among the half-million-strong Kurdish diaspora in Europe, and drew covert support from Syria and other rivals of Turkey. In late 1998 Abdullah Ocalan, the leader of the PKK, was arrested in Italy. He was extradited to Tukey in 1999 and charged with treason and attempting to divide the state by force. He was found guilty and sentenced to death in June 1999, leading him to appeal to the European Court of Human Rights.
In August 1999 Ocalan ordered the PKK to lay down its arms and end 15 years of violence and appealed to the Turkish government to begin a dialogue with it. In February 2000 the PKK turned itself into a legitimate political organization.
Turkish politics in the 1990s
After an inconclusive general election in October 1991, Demirel formed a coalition government with the support of the SDPP to become premier for a seventh time. But after President Turgut Özal died suddenly of a heart attack in April 1993, Demirel was elected president in May 1993 and Tansu Ciller of the True Path Party (DYP) became Turkey's first female prime minister. In the 1994 assembly elections, the Islamicist Welfare Party made substantial gains.The government faced economic difficulties, with inflation doubling to 149% in late 1994, after the currency had been devalued. In 1994, Turkey borrowed $742 million from the International Monetary Fund. In December 1995 the country agreed a customs deal with the EU.
The governing coalition collapsed in September 1995. But the December 1995 elections were inconclusive, with the Islamicist Welfare Party winning the largest numbers of seats. In February 1996, after weeks of negotiation, Ciller and ANAP leader Mesut Yilmaz agreed on an ANAP–DYP coalition with a rotating premiership, starting first with Yilmaz. But in May 1996 the DYP withdrew from the coalition and formed a coalition government with the Welfare Party, whose leader, Necmettin Erbakan, became prime minister.
In March 1997 Prime Minister Erbaken bowed to public pressure for measures to stamp out Muslim fundamentalism and in the following month concluded a 18-point agreement with senior military officers designed to curb the growth of the Islamic movement at the expense of the secular state.
In July 1997, after 11 months of Islamist-led government, Mesut Yilmaz formed a secularist government of national unity. It lasted until November 1998. In January 1999 Bülent Ecevit, leader of the centre-left Democratic Left Party (DSP), became prime minister, and his party won most seats in the April 1999 general election, after which he formed a new coalition government with ANAP and the National Action Party (MHP).
Earthquake disasters
Between August and November 1999 northwest Turkey was struck by a series of earthquakes, measuring up to 7.4 on the Richter scale, which destroyed many homes and claimed more than 40,000 lives. Repairing the damage, which cost over $20 billion, strained Turkey's economy. But mutual aid offered between Greece and Turkey was a step on the way to improved relations.EU and constitutional developments
In December 1999, Turkey was at last declared a candidate for entry to the EU, but in order to become a full member it would need to meet EU criteria on human rights and settle its territorial dispute with Greece.The Turkish parliament voted in April 2000 to prevent a change to the constitution that would have allowed the president, Suleyman Demirel, run for a second term. In May 2000 Ahmet Necdet Sezer, the former president of the constitutional court, was sworn in as the new president. He supported the legal and other reforms being undertaken by the Ecevit government and which were intended to push the country closer towards EU acceptance.
Amnesty
Nearly 20,000 prisoners were freed in late December 2000 under an amnesty law designed to reduce crowding in prisons. The amnesty was criticized because it did not apply to Turkey's many political prisoners.Financial crisis
In November 2000, Turkey experienced a financial crisis, triggered by an investigation into corruption among bankers. After two and a half weeks of sharp falls in the stock market, the IMF stepped in with a US$10 billion aid package to stabilize the situation. However, in February 2001, criticisms of Prime Minister Bulent Ecevit by President Ahmet Necdet Sezer over a corruption investigation led to another stock market crash, thousands of job losses, and the decision to float the currency. The collapse of Turkey's exchange-rate policy forced the government to abandon the IMF programme and announce new reforms, including the sale of debt-ridden state companies. More than 50,000 people stormed barriers and tried to march on Turkey's parliament in Ankara in April 2000 when Ecevit refused to step down.Islamic party banned
In June 2001, Turkey's Constitutional Court banned the pro-Islamic opposition party, Fazilet Partisi (FP; Virtue Party), on the grounds that it had flouted the country's strictly secular political system. In August 2001, the popular politician Recep Tayyip Erdogan, a former mayor of Istanbul from 1994 who served four months in prison in 1999 for his Islamist sympathies, set up a new Islamic party, the Justice and Development Party (AKP), from the moderate faction of the FP.In October 2001, Turkey's parliament approved a package of 34 amendments to the constitution intended to pave the way for membership of the EU. The reforms included relaxation of restrictions on the use of the Kurdish language, but not abolition of the death penalty, which was retained for cases of terrorism.
Islamic AK party in power
The November 2002 general election, held at a time of slow recovery from economic recession, brought victory for the Islamic AKP, which, with 34% of the vote, won an absolute majority of assembly seats. The AKP's leader, Recep Tayyip Erdogan, was banned from participating in politics, so was unable to become prime minister. Instead, Abdullah Gul of the AKP became prime minister and legislation was passed to secure Erdogan's return to politics. This enabled Erdogan to replace Gul as prime minister in March 2003 and Gul became foreign minister.Under Erdogan, Turkey's economy grew by 7% a year from 2002 to 2007, inflation fell to 6% in 2008, and privatization and other market-opening reforms were carried out in pursuit of EU membership, which Erdogan declared was a key objective. In May 2004 he became the first Turkish prime minister to visit Greece since 1988. In 2005 Turkey began full membership negotiations with the EU. In the July 2007 general election the AKP won 47% of the vote and continued in power. In August 1997, Abdullah Gul was elected state president by the assembly. His election was controversial because his wife wears a traditional Islamic headscarf.
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